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SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 

A  TREATISE 


PREPARATION,  ORGANIZAnON,  EMPLOYMENTS,   GOVERN- 
MENT, AND  AUTHORITIES  OF  SCHOOLS. 


BY 

JAMES  PYLE  WICKEESHAM,  A.M. 

PP.INCIPAL  OF  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  MILLERSVILLE,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


"  Doce  ut  discas." — Schoolmen. 

"All  who  have  medit»ted  on  the  art  of  governing  mankind,  have  been  convinced 
that  the  fate  of  empires  depends  on  the  education  of  youth." — Aristotle. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    &    CO. 

1867. 


V 


^' 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  yeax  1864,  by 

JAMES  PYLE  WICKERSHAM, 

in  the  Clerk's  OflSce  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Eastern 

District  of  Pennsylvania. 


Ua  tftj  ittpMiJ, 


who    have  so  eagerly    treasured    up    his    words    in    the 

leoture-rooTYif  and  so  faithfully  followed  his  precepts 

in    the  practice    of  their  profession;    whose 

gratitude    has    been  his    richest    reward 

in    the  past,   and    whose    kind   re- 

memhrance  he  is  most    anxious 

to  secure  for  the  future; 

in  which  they  will  not  fail  to  find  much  that 

will  remind  them  of  old  classmates  and 

hy-gone  times,  is  respectfully  dedi- 

oated   by   their   teacher 

and  friend, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


54! 878 


PEEFACE. 


All  that  relates  to  the  Theory  of  Teaching  or  to  its  Prac- 
tice may  be  embraced  under  the  four  following  heads : — 

1.  School  Economy. 

2.  Methods  of  Instruction. 

3.  Methods  of  Culture. 

4.  The  History  of  Education. 

Under  the  head  of  School  Economy  could  be  considered 
the  preparation  for,  and  the  organization  of,  the  school,  and 
the  conditions  of  its  efficient  working ;  under  that  of  Methods 
of  Instruction,  an  investigation  could  be  made  into  the  nature 
of  knowledge  and  the  methods  of  imparting  it ;  under  that  of 
Methods  of  Culture,  the  physical  and  mental  constitution  of 
man  could  be  examined,  and  an  effort  could  be  made  to  arrive 
at  the  best  means  of  developing  and  strengthening  it;  and 
under  that  of  the  History  of  Education,  there  could  be  related 
the  success  or  the  failure,  the  causes  and  effects,  of  the  various 
educational  systems  and  efforts  which  have  characterized  the 
past. 

The  preceding  classification  of  the  object-matter  of  Teach- 
ing was  made  after  several  years  of  careful  study,  and  an 
experience  in  teaching  of  almost  a  quarter  of  a  century. 

In  the  summer  of  1855,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  teachers, 
of  the  county  of  Lancaster,  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  assem- 
bled to  receive  professional  instruction,  during  three  months, 
at  the  little  town  of- Millers ville.   The  author  was  then  Super- 

l^J  V 


VJ  PREFACE. 

intendent  of  Common  Schools  for  the  county,  and  became  ex 
officio  Principal  of  the  school  thus  established.  In  the  discharge 
of  his  duty  as  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching, 
he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  ;  and  these  form  the  nucleus 
about  which  he  has  continued  to  collect  additional  matter,  as 
diligently  as  his  other  duties  would  permit,  until  the  present 
time.  Elected  Principal  of  the  Normal  School  in  1856,  he  has 
delivered  twice  a  year,  in  the  form  of  lectures  to  his  classes  in 
Teaching,  the  matter  thus  collected ;  and  he  has  allowed  no 
such  opportunities  to  pass  without  turning  them  to  advantage 
by  reviewing  opinions  and  testing  theories.  That. his  views 
now  approximate  the  truth  appears  from  the  skilful  school- 
work  of  several  thousand  of  his  pupils  who  have  become 
teachers. 

When  the  idea  of  publishing  a  book  was  first  entertained, 
only  one  volume  was  contemplated;  afterwards,  two;  then, 
three;  and  now  the  material  on  hand  has  taken  shape  as 
indicated  on  the  preceding  page.  The  printing  of  this  volume 
will  be  ventured  upon  as  an  experiment,  and  its  reception  by 
the  Profession  may  determine  the  fate  of  the  rest.  At  the 
best,  some  years  must  elapse  before  all  of  them  can  be  pre- 
pared. The  matter  intended  for  the  volume  on  **  Methods  of 
Instruction"  is  now  almost  ready  for  the  press ;  but  that  in- 
tended for  the  volume  on  "Methods  of  Culture^'  exists  only 
in  the  form  of  outlines  of  lectures,  and  that  intended  for  the 
volume  on  the  "History  of  Education"  lies  scattered  about  in 
notes,  references,  and  fragmentary  remarks. 

In  preparing  the  lectures  which  constitute  the  ground-work 
of  the  present  volume,  use  was  made  of  all  the  books  relating 
to  Education  and  Teaching  that  could  be  procured  in  this  coun- 
try, and  numerous  English,  French,  and  German  works  were 
consulted.  The  names  of  very  few  authors,  however,  will  be 
found  in  this  volume  ;  and  it  is  much  regretted  that  the  credit 
due  him  cannot  now  be  given  to  each.  The  lectures  were  at 
first  arranged  without  any  reference  to  their  publication ;  they 
were  delivered  many  times,  with  additions  and  amendments, 
until  the  whole  became  so  connected  together  that  it  has  been 
found  impossible  to  unravel  the  web  thus  woven  and  point  out 
the  place  whence  each  thread  was  taken.  -  But,  though  many 


PREFACE.  Vll 

marks  of  quotation  are  not  used,  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  the  author  desires  to  erect  a  superstructure  for  himself 
by  taking  forcible  possession  of  the  materials  prepared  by 
others ;  and,  in  order  to  avoid  all  controversy,  if  indeed  any 
one  should  care  to  dispute  about  the  matter,  he  is  willing  that 
every  thing  contained  in  this  book  which  was  published  prior 
to  its  date  may  be  considered  as  borrowed ;  but  to  claimants 
is  left  the  difficult  task  of  dividing  the  allotment  for  them- 
selves.    This  is  the  more  readily  done,  because  little  is  cared 
as  to  who  first  stated  an  isolated  fact  or  discovered  a  discon- 
nected principle.     This  work  aims  to  embody  what  is  known 
in  the  department  of  education  of  which  it  treats,  into  a 
system ;  it  professes  to  be  a  practical  treatise  based  on  scien- 
tific principles ;   and  as  such  its  merit  must  be  judged.     It 
would  have  been  easy  to  fill  the  book  with  accounts  of  par- 
ticular methods  and  special  cases, — ^with  descriptions  of  funny 
school-scenes  and  relations  of  amusing  anecdotes;  but  it  is 
thought  that  the  time  has  gone  by  when  it  was  proper  to  in- 
troduce such  things  into  our  graver  professional  literature. 
No  work  upon  Teaching  can  now  be  welcomed  by  the  think- 
ing teacher  whose  methods  of  treating  the  subject  are  not 
scientific  in  their  nature.     So  much  that  is  superficial  has 
been  spoken  and  written  upon  Education,  that  it  has  almost 
come  to  be  doubted  by  some,  whether  there  can  be  found 
concerning  it  any  broad,  general  principles  that  may  be  used 
to  unite  its  facts  into  a  coherent  whole.     As  treated  of  in  the 
present  volume,  Teaching  is  more  an  art  than  a  science ;  but 
it  is  an  art  based  either  upon  the  observation  of  facts  or  the 
apprehension  of  principles.     The  second  and  third  volumes 
of  the  series  will  treat  more  strictly  of  Teaching  as  a  science. 
Headers  of  this  book,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  not  only 
among  teachers  and   school-officers,  but  among  the  unpro- 
fessional friends  of  education.     Every  parent  will  find  matter 
in  it  with  which  he  ought  to  acquaint  himself.    But  the  author 
has  no  disposition  to  conceal  the  fact  that  he  has  written 
mainly  for  teachers.     His  own  class  of  student-teachers  has 
been  constantly  before  his  mind,  and  he  has  earnestly  endea- 
vored to  supply  their  wants  and  the  wants  of  others  situated 
like  them.     It  is  thought  that  the  matter  of  the  book  is  so 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

arranged  that  it  may  be  profitably  used  in  the  regular  recita- 
tions of  the  Normal  School  and  the  Teachers'  Institute. 

Finally,  if  his  book  fail  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  the 
author  will  not  consider  his  time  misspent  if  what  he  has 
written  shall  aid  in  opening  the  way  for  another  to  perfect 
the  work  he  has  labored  to  begin.  Education  has  its  prin- 
ciples, and  is  a  science.  These  principles  can  be  arranged 
into  a  system.  Teaching  will  be  recognized  as  a  learned  pro- 
fession, and  Teacher  will,  become  an  honored  title  among  men : 
to  wish  to  be  remembered  as  one  who  contributed  to  these 
ends  is,  surely,  not  an  unworthy  ambition. 

J.  P.  W. 

Statis  Nosmal  School,  October,  1863. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   PREPARATION  FOR  THE   SCHOOL. 

PAOX 

I.  School-Sites 1 

1.  Convenience  op  Access 2 

2.  Suitability  op  Grounds  and  Sureoundings 3 

3.  Healthiness  op  the  Neighborhood 4 

4.  Beauty  of  Location 4 

II.  School-Grounds 5 

1.  The  Arrangement  OP  School-Grounds 6 

1st.  Size 6 

2d.  Shape 6 

3d.  Plan 7 

4th.  Apparatus 8 

6th.  Care-taking 9 

2.  The  Advantages  op  School-Grounds 9 

1st.  The  Invigoration  of  the  Health  of  the  Pupils 10 

2d.    The   Removal  of  particular  Causes  of  Disorder 

from  the  School 10 

3d.    The  Promotion  of  Study 12 

4th.  The  Cultivation  of  Taste 13 

6th.  The  Furnishing  of  Occasions  for  imparting  certain 

Kinds  of  Instruction 13 

6th.  The  Presentation  of  Opportunities  for  studying  the 

Disposition  of  Pupils 15 

ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

III.  School-Grades 15 

1.  The  Plans  op  Graded  Schools 15 

1st.  The  Number  of  Grades 16 

2d.  The  Manner  of  Grading 19 

2.  The  Objects  of  Graded  Schools 24 

1st.  They  economize  the  Labor  of  Instruction ■» 24 

2d.  They  lessen  the  Cost  of  Teaching 24 

8d.  They  make  Teaching  more  eflFective 24 

4th.  They  promote  good  Order  in  School 25 

6th.  They  prompt  the  Ambition  of  Pupils 25 

6th.  They  provide  Instruction  in  the  higher  Branches 

of  Learning 26 

7th.  They  remove  the  Necessity  of  Children's  leaving 

Home  to  obtain  a  good  Education 26 

IV.  SclLOol-Studies 27 

1.  Studies  for  Primary  Schools 27 

2.  Studies  for  Grammar-Schools 29 

3.  Studies  for  High  Schools 80 

4.  Studies  for  Colleges 81 

V.  School-Houses 83 

1.  Size 83 

2.  Form 84 

8.  Internal  Arrangement 84 

4.  Recitation-Rooms 88 

5.  The  Cellar 89 

6.  Lighting 89 

7.  Heating 40 

8.  Ventilation 41 

VI.  School-rurnittire 42 

1.  Desks  and  Seats 42 

2.  Platform 43 

8.  Blackboard 43 

4.  Miscellaneous  Articles  op  Furniture 46 

VII.  School- Apparatus 46 

VIII.  Scliool-Kecords 48 

1.  The  Forms  of  School-Records 48 


CONTENTS.  Xi 

VAGI 

1st.  A  Register  of  Admission  and  Withdrawal 50 

2d.  A  Register  of  Attendance  and  Deportment 51 

3d.  A  Class-Register 54 

4th.  A  Summary  Register 56 

2.  The  Objects  of  School-Records 55 

1st.  To  aid  the  Teacher  in  his  Work 57 

2d.  To  give  Information  to  Parents  and  School-Ofl&cers  57 

8d.  To  furnish  educational  Statistics 67 

4th.  To  exert  a  beneficial  Influence  upon  the  Pupils  ...  58 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   ORGANIZATION   OP   THE   SCHOOL. 

I.  The  Temporary  Organization  of  the  School 60 

1.  The  Seating 66 

2.  The  Times  op  Opening  and  Closing  the  School 66 

3.  The  Hours  of  Recesses  and  Intermissions 66 

4.  Leaving  Seats  and  asking  Questions 66 

5.  Whispering... 66 

6.  General  Deportment 67 

7.  Work 68 

II.  The  Permanent  Organization  of  the  School 70 

1.  Provisions  Relating  to  Study 70 

1st.  The  Branches  to  be  taught  in  the  School 71 

2d.  The  Branches  to  be  studied  by  each  Pupil 73 

8d.  The  Text-Books  to  be  used 76 

4th.  The  Formation  of  the  Pupils  into  Classes 83 

5th,  The  Distribution  of  the  Classes  among  the  Teachers  92 
6th.  The  Arrangement  of  Times  for  Study  and  Recita- 
tion    94 

2.  Provisions  relating  to  Order 99 

1st.  The  Conditions  upon  which  Pupils  may  be  admitted 

into  the  School 100 

2d.  The  School-Limits 101 

3d.  The  Length  of  the  School-Day 102 

4th.  The  Time  and  Length  of  Intermissions 106 

5th.  The  Opening  and  Closing  Exercises  of  the  School  IOC 

6th.  The  Calling  out  and  Dismissing  of  Classes 109 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

lih.  The  granting  of  Special  Privileges 110 

8th.  The  Transaction  of  General  Business 114 

9th.  The  Administration  of  Discipline 116 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OE  THE   SCHOOL. 

1.  Study 119 

1.  The  Objects  op  Study 119 

1st.  Knowledge 120 

2d.  Discipline  121 

8d.  Aspiration 123 

4th.  Efficiency ..     124 

2.  The  Incentives  to  Study 125 

1st.  Incentives  of  doubtful  Fropriety 127 

Prizes 127 

Merit-Marks 135 

Emulation 138 

Fear  of  Punishment , 145 

Shame 147 

Ridicule 148 

2d.  Proper  Incentives  to  Study 149 

The  Approbation  of  the  Teacher 150 

The  Approbation  of  the  Parents  and  Friends  of  the 

Pupil 151 

The  Approbation  of  Society 152 

The  Attainment  of  an  honorable  Position  in  the  School  153 

The  Pleasure  of  overcoming  Difficulties 153 

The  Gratification  of  Curiosity 155 

The  Desire  of  Knowledge 156 

The  Hope  of  Success  in  Life 157 

The  Enjoyment  of  purer  ideal  Creations * 159 

The  Duty  of  Self- Perfection 161 

The  Satisfaction  of  doing  Right 161 

The  Prospect  of  Heavenly  Reward 162 

3.  The  Modes  of  Study 163 

1st.  Modes  of  Study  in  the  Attainment  of  original  Know- 
ledge    164 

Empirical  Knowledge H4 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAQB 

Pure  Knowledge 166 

2d.  Modes  of  Study  in  the  Attainment  of  scholastic  Know- 
ledge   167 

4.  The  Characteristics  of  the  Student 167 

1st.  Health 170 

2d.  Natural  Ability 170 

3d.  Love  of  Learning 171 

4th.  An  elevated  Ideal 171 

6th.  Self-Reliance 172 

6th.  Perseverance 172 

7th.  The  Power  of  Concentration 173 

8th.  Enthusiasm 173 

9th.  Patience 174 

10th.  Humility 176 

11.  Eecitation 175 

1.  The  Objects  op  the  Recitation 176 

1st.  To  enable  the  Teacher  to  estimate  the  daily  Progress 

of  his  Pupils 176 

2d.  To  enable  the  Pupils  to  tell  what  they  know 177 

8d.  To  enable  the  Pupils  to  acquire  well-founded  Self- 

Confidence 178 

4th.  To  enable  the  Pupils  to  fix  in  their  Minds  what  they 

learn 178 

6th.  To  enable  the  Teacher  to  explain  and  illustrate  the 

Lesson  and  add  new  Matter  to  it 179 

6th.  To  enable  the  Teacher  to  keep  before  his  Pupils 

proper  Incentives  to  Study 179 

7th.  To  enable  the  Teacher  to  impart  Moral  Instruction 

to  his  Pupils 180 

2.  The  Requisites  of  the  Recitation 181 

1st.  A  proper  Place 181 

2d.  Suitable  Apparatus 182 

3d.  Quiet , 183 

4th.  Sufficient  Time 183 

3.  The  Methods  of  Conducting  the  Recitation 184 

1st.  Imparting  Knowledge 184 

Lectures 184 

Text-Books 186 

Dialogues * 187 

Catechization ,... 188 

2 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAQl 

2d.   Testing  Knowledge 189 

The  Matter  of  the  Questions 190 

The  Form  of  the  Questions 191 

The  Mode  of  Questioning 193 

The  Teacher  in  Questioning 196 

3d.  Proving  Knowledge 198 

The  Matter  of  the  Answers 198 

The  Form  of  the  Answers 200 

The  Mode  of  Answering 201 

The  Pupil  in  Answering 208 

4th.  Correcting  Errors 209 

The  Correction  of  Errors  by  the  Pupils 209 

The  Correction  of  Errors  by  the  Teacher 210 

4.  The  Preparation  for  the  Eecitation 211 

1st.  The  Preparation  the  Pupil  needs  for  the  Recitatiop  211 
2d.  The  Preparation  the  Teacher  needs  for  the  Re- 
citation   214 

III.  Exercise 216 

1.  Unregulated  Exercise 218 

1st.  The  Place  for  Play 219 

2d.  The  Times  for  Play 219 

3d.  The  Manner  of  Play 220 

4th.  The  Teacher  at  Play-Time 221 

2.  Regulated  Exercise 222 

1st.  The  Place  for  Exercising 223 

2d.  The  Times  for  Exercising 225 

3d.  The  Manner  of  Exercising 225 

4th.  The  Teacher  at  the  Exercises 227 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

I.  School-Etliics 281 

The  Classification  of  Persons  engaged  in  the  School...  231 

The  Duties  of  Pupils 233 

The  Offences  of  Pupils 235 


CONTENTS.  xy 

PAaB 

II.  Scliool-Eetributioiis 237 

1.  Rewards  for  Good  Conduct 238 

2.  Punishments  for  Bad  Conduct 241 

III.  School-Legislation 245 

1.  Means  of  preventing  Disorder 246 

1st.  Accommodations 246 

2d.  Teachers 247 

3d.  Management 249 

2.  Means  of  Correcting  Disord-er 250 

1st.  The  Punishment  of  those  who  offend. 251 

The  Principles  according  to  which  all  Punishments 

should  take  place 253 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  Themselves 264 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  One  Another 266 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  the  School-Property  269 
Punishments   for   Offences   against  the  Teacher  and 

School-Officers 269 

Punishments  for   Offences  against   the  School  as  a 

Whole 272 

Punishments    for   Offences    against  Visitors    at    the 

School 275 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  Society 276 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  God 278 

2d.  The  Pardon  of  those  who  repent 279 

The  Conditions  on  which  Pardon  may  be  granted 281 

3.  Means  of  inducing  Pupils  to  discharge  their  Du- 

ties OF  their  own  Accord 283 

let.  Moral  Knowing 284 

2d.  Moral  Feeling 285 

3d.  Moral  Willing 289 

IV.  Soliool-Admiiiistratioii 290 

1.  The  Detection  of  Offenders 291 

2.  The  Selection  of  the  Punishment  for  Offenders..  298 
8.  The    Manner  of  inflicting  Punishment  upon   Of- 
fenders  c 300 


XVl  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

TAQM 

I.  The  Teacher 305 

1.  The  Teacher's  Motives 306 

2.  The  Teacher's  Qualifications 309 

1st.  Physical  Qualifications 309 

2d.  Intellectual  Qualifications 312 

3d.  Moral  Qualifications 314 

4th.  Professional  Qualifications 322 

3.  The  Teacher's  Duties  i-o  his  Pupils 326 

1st.  To  supply  their  physical  Wants 327 

2d.  To  supply  their  intellectual  Wants 328 

3d.  To  supply  their  aesthetic  Wants 329 

4th.  To  supply  their  moral  Wants 329 

4.  The  Teacher's  Duties  to  his  Profession 331 

1st.  To  adorn  it  by  his  Skill  and  Scholarship 333 

2d.  To  dignify  it  by  his  personal  Worth 334 

8d.  To  elevate  it,  by  encouraging  all  Means  of  profes- 
sional Improvement 335 

4th.  To  render  it  more  united,  by  showing  Respect  to  his 

Fellow-Teachers 338 

5.  A  Teacher's  Life 339 

1st.  Disadvantages 339 

2d.  Advantages 345 

II.  The  General  School-Officers 351 

III.  The  People  in  Kespect  to  Schools 355 

1.  The  Relations  of  Education  in  Society 356 

1st.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Labor 356 

2d.    The  Relations  of  Education  to  Wealth 360 

3d.    The  Relations  of  Education  to  Crime 361 

4th.  The  Relation  of  Education  to  Happiness 364 

5th.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Government 369 


CONTENTS.  XVII 

PAGE 

The  Agencies  bt  which  an  Education  can  be  ob- 
tained   371 

1st.  The  Family  School 371 

2d.    The  Church  School 373 

3d.    The  Private  School 374 

4th.  The  State  School 375 

6th.  The  People's  School 377 


17* 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 

By  School  Economy  are  meant  all  those  arrange- 
ments that  tend  to  make  the  school  a  fit  place  in 
which  to  impart  instruction,  and  all  those  conditions 
that  render  teaching  eflective.  That  schools  may- 
be badly  arranged,  and  that  certain  conditions  may 
exist  which  are  unfavorable  to  success  in  teaching, 
are  unquestionable  facts;  and  hence  the  teacher 
should  understand  School  Economy.  Without  this 
knowledge,  his  labors  must  be  ill  directed  and  may 
be  fruitless. 

The  whole  subject  will  be  divided  into  five  chap- 
ters, as  follows: — 

Chapter     I. — The  Preparation  for  the  School. 
Chapter   II. — The  Organization  of  the  School. 
Chapter  III. — The  Employments  of  the  School. 
Chapter  IV. — The  Government  of  the  School. 
Chapter   V. — The  Authorities  of  the  School. 

This  classification  explains  itself,  and  is  wellnigh 
exhaustive. 


xviU 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

Preparation  is  required  for  every  important  un- 
dertaking. Preparation  must  be  made  for  building 
a  bouse,  for  constructing  a  railroad,  for  taking  a 
journey,  for  painting  pictures,  for  growing  fruit, 
for  rearing  animals;  and  so  for  tbe  Scbool.  Tbe 
nature  of  tbis  preparation  will  depend,  in  eacb  par- 
ticular case,  upon  tbe  end  intended  to  be  accom- 
plisbed,  and  tbe  means  wbicb  can  be  used  in  its 
accomplisbment.  In  making  preparation  for  tbe 
Scbool,  tbe  following  particulars  must  be  regarded : 

I.  School-Sites. 
II.  School-Grounds. 
m.  School-Grades. 
IV.  School-Studies. 
V.  School-Houses. 
VI.  School-Furniture. 
VII.  School-Apparatus, 
Vni.  School-Records. 

I.  School-Sites. — Too  little  attention  bas  been 
paid  to  tbe  location  of  scbool-bouses.     Not  unfre- 


2  THE    PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

queiitly  z  school-houBe  is  located  along  some  dark 
alley  or  noisy  street,  half  in  a  road  and  half  in  an 
adjacent  field,  at  an  angle  of  a  cross-road,  or  upon  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  where  two  roads  fork.  All 
have  seen  it  placed  upon  ground  low  and  marshy ; 
on  a  common,  rocky  and  exposed ;  or  high  up  on 
a  bank  by  the  roadside.  In  such  locations,  —  dis- 
turbed by  noises;  attracted  by  passing  vehicles; 
suffering  from  heat,  cold,  dampness,  want  of  light, 
or  miasmatic  exhalations;  blunted  in  taste  and, 
perhaps,  corrupted  in  morals, — pupils  cannot  pur- 
sue the  work  of  education  with  full  profit  to  them- 
selves or  full  satisfaction  to  their  teachers. 

Several  things  must  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  selecting  a  site  for  a  school-house.  The  most 
important  of  them  are : — 

1.  Convenience  of  Access.  ^ 

2.  Suitability  of  the  Grounds  and  Surround- 

ings. 

3.  Healthiness  of  the  JS^eighborhood. 

4.  Beauty  of  the  Location. 

1.  Convenience  of  Access. — ^Each  Common  School 
house  is  designed  to  accommodate  with  school  fa- 
cilities the  people  who  inhabit  a  certain  district  of 
territory,  and  should  therefore  be  so  located  as  to 
furnish  the  best  accommodations  to  the  greatest 
number  without  doing  injustice  to  any.  Theoreti- 
cally, taking  distance  alone  into  consideration,  the 
place  for  the  location  of  the  school-house  is  that  to 
reach  which  the  least  possible  distance  must  be 
travelled  by  all  the  children  who  attend  the  school. 
This  will  not  often  be  the  centre  of  the  district;  fv)r 


SCHOOL-SITES.  3 

the  distribution  of  the  population,  the  direction  of 
the  roads,  and  the  intervention  of  obstacles,  as  moun- 
tains and  streams,  will  nearly  always  render  it  best 
to  choose  a  different  location.  All  that  is  insisted 
upon  here  is  that  those  whose  duty  it  may  be  to 
locate  school-houses  should  do  it  with  reference  to 
their  convenience  of  access,  but  by  no  means  with 
reference  to  this  consideration  alone.  In  towns, 
especially,  it  is  often  best  to  increase  the  distance 
of  the  school-house  from  the  population  to  be  ac- 
commodated, for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  more 
eligible  location  for  it. 

2.  Suitability  of  the  Grounds  and  Surround- 
ings.— 'So  school-house  should  have  attached  to  it 
less  than  a  half  an  acre  of  ground ;  and  a  lot  larger  in 
extent  should  be  procured  whenever  possible.  The 
best  shape  for  a  school-yard  is  rectangular,  the  length 
extending  north  and  south,  and  bearing  the  ratio 
to  the  breadth  of  about  three  to  two.  The  ground 
selected  for  a  school-yard  should  be  level  or  slope 
gently  toward  the  south ;  it  should  be  dry,  free  from 
obstacles  that  would  interfere  with  the  children's 
play,  and  susceptible  of  a  reasonable  degree  of  or- 
nament. The  air  ought  to  be  allowed  to  circulate 
freely  about  the  school-house  and  the  school-grounds, 
and  the  sunlight  to  baptize  them  with  its  health- 
giving  beams. 

The  surroundings  of  a  school  are  to  be  considered 
of  almost  as  much  importance  in  locating  it  as  its 
grounds.  The  work  of  the  school  cannot  be  well 
done  amidst  noise  and  confusion.  The  clatter  of  a 
mill  or  a  factory,  the  sounds  which  come  from  a 
smith  or  a  carpenter  shop,  the  noises  of  the  busy 


4  THE   PREPARATION  FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

street  or  the  thronged  highway, — all  are  apt  to  divert 
the  mind  from  study.  Still  worse  is  the  near  prox- 
imity to  the  school  of  a  store,  a  railroad  station,  a 
butcher  shop,  or  a  tavern ;  as  occurrences  at  such 
places  are  sometimes  calculated  not  only  to  distract 
the  attention  of  pupils,  but  to  vitiate  their  taste  or 
corrupt  their  morals.  It  is  best  to  locate  a  school- 
house  a  little  distance  from  the  street  or  the  public 
road,  and  away  from  other  buildings.  It  may  be 
sheltered  on  the  north  side  by  a  wood,  but  the  other 
sides  should  present  an  unobstructed  view  in  all 
directions. 

3.  Healthiness  of  the  I^eighborhood. — This  point 
needs  only  to  be  stated  to  secure  assent;  and  yet  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  find  school-houses  located  amid 
the  dense  population  of  a  city,  where  children  are 
compelled  to  breathe  the  impure  exhalations  arising 
from  streets,  stables,  sewers,  and  thousands  of  lungs; 
near  marshes,  stagnant  bodies  of  water,  or  rivers 
whose  subsiding  waters  leave  vast  accumulations 
of  vegetable  matter  to  decay  in  the  autumn  sun ; 
or  in  low,  damp  situations,  where  heavy  vapors 
hang  about  them  in  the  morning  long  after  the  glad 
sunshine  has  begun  to  play  all  over  the  neighboring 
hill-sides,  or  the  chill  night-dews  fall  before  the 
day's  work  is  done.  Of  doubtful  benefit  is  that 
benevolence  which  provides  for  the  education  of  the 
mind  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  health  of  the  body. 

4.  Beauty  of  Location. — ^Very  seldom  in  the  past 
have  those  who  selected  sites  for  our  school-houses 
allowed  themselves  to  be  influenced  by  beauty  of 
location ;  and  yet  it  is  a  very  important  considera- 
tion.    A  school-house  so  situated  that  the  children 


SCHOOL-GROUNDS.  6 

who  frequent  it  can  look  out  in  all  directions  upon 
scenes  of  romantic  wildness  or  quiet  beauty  will 
teach,  many  lessons  better  than  they  can  be  learned 
from  books.  We  are  taught  unconsciously  by  the 
objects  that  surround  us;  and  towering  mountains 
and  peaceful  valleys,  golden  grain  and  shaded  forests, 
rough  wild  rocks  and  pleasant  gardens,  villages 
dotting  the  neighboring  plains,  and  vessels  gliding 
along  the  distant  river, — all  have  truth  for  the  in- 
tellect and  beauty  for  the  heart,  Scenes  like  these 
leave  upon  the  susceptible  mind  of  a  child  a  deep 
impression.  Accustomed  to  look  upon  the  beautiful 
in  nature,  he  will  learn  to  appreciate  the  beautiful 
in  life.  Thus  instructed,  he  will  be  more  apt  to 
shun  the  low  and  the  grovelling,  the  profane  and 
the  vulgar,  and  to  exemplify  the  sentiment,  "How 
near  to  what  is  good  is  what  is  fair !" 

II.  School- Grounds. — It  is  not  less  important 
that  a  school  should  have  connected  with  it  appro- 
priate grounds  than  that  the  school-house  itself 
should  be  well  built  or  properly  furnished.  But  to 
such  an  extent  have  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  pro- 
vide these  grounds  neglected  it,  that  in  many  cases 
schools  have  no  grounds  at  all,  and  in  others  they 
are  much  too  small  to  subserve  the  purposes  for 
which  they  should  be  designed.  Where  they  do 
exist,  they  are  often  found  uncared  for,  and  without 
good  fences,  shade -trees,  walks,  or  flowers,  and, 
not  unfrequently,  covered  with  heaps  of  stone  and 
rubbish,  overgrown  with  briers  and  brushwood,  or 
made  unhealthy  by  stagnant  pools  of  water,  and 


6  THE   PREPARATION    FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

useless  for  the  purposes  of  play  by  rocks  and  stumps 
and  tlie  unevenness  of  the  ground. 

Upon  this  subject  it  is  proposed  to  consider — 

1.  The  Arrangements  of  School-Grounds. 

2.  The  Advantages  of  School-Grounds. 

1.  The  Arrangements  of  School-Grounds. — 
The  principal  arrangements  necessary  to  be  made 
respecting  school-grounds  will  have  reference  to 
their  size,  shape,  plan,  apparatus,  and  care-taking. 

Size. — In  cities  and  towns  where  ground  cannot 
conveniently  be  procured,  or  where  the  means  of 
a  district  will  not  justify  the  outlay,  the  school- 
authorities  must  be  content  with  small  play-grounds 
well  used.  A  play-ground  of  a  half  an  acre  in  ex- 
tent may  be  made  to  subserve  many  of  the  purposes 
of  an  ungraded  school  in  a  rural  district,  provided 
that  but  a  small  part  of  it  be  appropriated  to  orna- 
ment, and  that  the  children  be  restricted  to  certain 
kinds  of  games,  plays,  and  gymnastic  exercises.  It 
is  far  better,  however,  wherever  suitable  ground 
can  be  obtained  at  any  thing  like  a  reasonable  cost, 
to  procure  a  whole  acre,  or  even  two  or  three  acres. 

Academies,  Normal  Schools,  and  Colleges,  espe- 
cially such  as  furnish  boarding  accommodations  to 
their  students,  should  have,  according  to  their  cir- 
cumstances, from  five  to  fifty  acres  attached  to  them 
and  properly  laid  out  in  botanic  gardens  and  play 
and  pleasure  grounds. 

Shape. — The  shape  of  school-grounds  containing 
a  half  an  acre  or  an  acre  should  be  rectangular,  as 
before  stated.  The  length  should  extend  north  and 
south,  and  the  school-house  should  front  toward  the 


SCHOOL-GROUNDS.  7 

south.  Witli  larger  grounds  the  shape  is  not  so  im- 
portant; but  they  should  always  form  a  compact 
body. 

Plan, — Supposing  that  the  front  of  the  grounds 
will  border  on  a  street  or  a  highway,  it  is  best,  when 
the  grounds  are  not  more  than  an  acre  in  extent,  to 
place  the  school-house  at  about  the  distance  of  one- 
third  their  length  from  the  front,  and  on  a  line  ex- 
tending lengthwise  through  the  middle  of  the 
grounds.  A  neat  and  strong  fence  should  enclose 
the  grounds.  A  walk  should  extend  from  the  front 
entrance  to  the  house,  and  walks  should  also  ex- 
tend to  both  sides  on  a  line  with  the  front  of  the 
house.  A  close  and  high  board  fence  should  ex- 
tend from  the  centre  of  the  house  behind  to  the 
centre  of  the  fence  at  the  back  end  of  the  grounds. 
This  arrangement  will  divide  the  grounds  into  three 
divisions.  The  two  spaces  behind  the  house  should 
be  used  for  play-grounds,  in  mixed  schools,  one  for 
each  sex.  A  shed  placed  immediately  behind  the 
house  and  extending  into  both  play-grounds  would 
furnish  shelter  in  wet  weather.  The  space  in  front 
should  be  laid  out  in  grass-plots  with  shrubbery  and 
beds  for  flowers,  and  a  few  rustic  seats  for  the  stu- 
dious or  those  seeking  rest  from  play  might  be  placed 
under  its  shade-trees.  The  engraving  of  a  school- 
house,  designed  for  a  common,  ungraded  school, 
which  is  inserted  as  a  frontispiece  to  this  work,  will 
convey  a  better  idea  of  what  is  meant  than  a  de- 
scription. 

Plans  for  designing  extensive  school-grounds  must 
be  left  to  the  taste  of  school-authorities,  or  to  be 
determined  by  their  means  of  gratifying  it.     They 


8       THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

may  embrace  only  the  grading  of  a  place  for  play, 
the  planting  of  a  few  trees,  the  laying  out  of  a  few 
walks,  and  the  arranging  of  a  few  beds  of  flowers ; 
or  they  may  comprehend  all  the  arts  known  to  the 
landscape  gardener,  l^o  place  can  be  named  where 
these  arts  could  be  turned  to  better  account.  Bless- 
ings upon  the  benefactors  who  shall  connect  with 
our  higher  institutions  of  learning,  grounds  diver- 
sified by  hill  and  valley,  by  grove  and  copse  and 
cluster,  by  lawn  and  nook  and  glen ;  who  shall  make 
walks  and  drives  wind  about  them ;  build  here  and 
there  arbors,  retreats,  and  summer-houses;  cause 
streams  to  meander  through  them,  and,  now  and 
then,  swell  into  little  lakes;  place  fishes  in  their 
ponds,  waterfowl  upon  their  lakes,  and  fawn  in 
their  groves;  erect  fountains  where  best  the  leap- 
ing of  their  diamond  jets  could  charm  the  eye; 
and  set  up  statues  of  the  good  and  great  whose 
mute  but  eloquent  voices  might  speak  to  the 
young  of  learning  and  of  virtue. 

Apparatus. — Such  apparatus  for  play  as  is  used 
in  the  games  of  ball,  foot-ball,  base-ball,  cricket, 
marbles,  &c.,  the  pupils  will  furnish  for  themselves: 
they  will  also  procure  stones,  and  sticks,  and  sand, 
and  clay,  and  find  use  for  them ;  but  there  are  other 
kinds  of  apparatus  for  the  play-ground  which  the 
school-authorities  should  furnish.  Among  the  most 
useful  of  these,  for  boys,  are  a  ball-alley,  a  rotary 
swing,  a  climbing-stand,  a  balancing-bar,  and  a 
vaulting-horse.  Girls  will  use  swings,  jumping- 
ropes,  brick-blocks,  and  bows  and  arrows.  Such 
apparatus  as  that  now  mentioned  "will  answer  the 
purposes  of  play  and  exercise  in  a  day-school ;  but 


SCHOOL-GROUNDS.  9 

all  boarding-scliools  should  liave  a  room  set  apart 
for  gymnastics  and  supplied  with  the  most  approved 
apparatus.  Here  the  pupils  should  receive  regular 
and  systematic  training  from  a  competent  teacher. 

Care-taking, — School -Directors  or  School-  Com- 
mittees should  first  put  the  school-grounds  in  order; 
but,  after  he  comes  into  possession,  the  teacher  ought 
to  be  held  responsible  for  their  care-taking.  It  is 
his  duty  to  keep  a  clean  and  tidy  school-room,  and 
it  is  equally  his  duty  to  keep  the  grounds  in  good 
condition.  It  is  true  that  the  destructive  propen- 
sities of  children,  uncontrolled,  often  lead  them  to 
do  mischief, — to  throw  down  fences,  to  cut  and  bark 
trees,  to  cover  doors  and  furniture  with  uncouth  and 
obscene  figures  ;  but  it  is  emphatically  the  teacher's 
duty  to  prevent  these  acts,  and  no  better  proof  of  a 
teacher's  want  of  qualifications  need  be  asked  than 
his  inability  to  do  so.  This  propensity  of  the  young 
to  cut,  scratch,  deface,  and  destroy  school-property 
should  be  corrected.  They  do  not  thus  misuse  the 
property  of  their  parents;  and  good  management  in 
school  will  prevent  it  there.  Teachers  may  create 
such  a  spirit  among  their  pupils  as  not  only  to  pre- 
vent them  from  doing  harm  to  the  school-property, 
but  to  render  them  willing  and  ready  to  assist  in 
protecting  it  from  the  trespasses  of  others.  They 
can  be  taught  to  love  neatness  and  order,  to  guard 
affectionately  the  trees  and  flowers  about  the  school- 
grounds,  and  to  take  pride  in  protecting  and  pre- 
serving then 

2.  The  Advantages  of  School-Grounds. — The 
following  advantages  may  be  expected  to  result  from 
school-grounds  well  arranged  and  well  provided  with 


10  THE   PREPAEATION  FOR  THE   SCHOOL. 

apparatus:  the  invigoration  of  the  health  of  the  pupils; 
the  removal  of  particular  causes  of  disorder  from  the 
school;  the  promotion  of  study;  the  caliivation  of  taste; 
the  furnishing  of  occasions  for  imparting  certain  kinds 
of  instruction;  and  the  presentation  of  opportunities  for 
studying  the  disposition  of  pupils. 

The  Invigoration  of 'the  Health  of  the  Pupils. — Chil- 
dren require  free,  exciting  bodily  exercise.  They 
cannot  be  healthy  without  it.  When  confined  for  a 
long  time,  they  become  restless  and  unable  to  study. 
They  need  pure,  fresh  air,  which  is  seldom  found 
except  out-of-doors.  Nature  thus  indicates  that 
periods  of  exercise  should  alternate  with  periods 
of  study.  The  bones  must  be  strengthened,  the 
muscles  toughened,  the  blood  made  to  circulate 
briskly,  and  the  whole  organism  of  the  body  made 
to  perform  its  functions  healthfully,  in  order  that  a 
sure  basis  be  had  upon  which  to  erect  the  super- 
structure of  mental  education.  There  must  be  a 
healthy  bodily  organization  to  insure  a  healthy 
mental  organization ;  and,  while  a  school-room  is 
necessary  to  induce  the  latter,  a  well-arranged  play- 
ground is  the  best  means  of  promoting  the  former. 
No  gymnastic  exercises  can  be  contrived  equal  in 
value  to  jumping-the-rope,  rolling  hoops,  ball,  or 
cricket. 

The  Removal  of  particular  Causes  of  Disorder  from 
the  School. — The  exercises  of  a  school  situated  upon 
a  street  or  by  the  side  of  a  highway  must  suiFer 
great  interruption  from  noise,  and  be  considerably 
disturbed  by  the  curiosity  pupils  evince  to  see  every 
passing  object.  At  play,  in  such  circumstances, 
without  a  play-ground,  the  pupils  are  themselves  in 


I 


SCHOOL-GROUNDS.  11 

constant  danger  from  "horses  and  passing  vehicles, 
and  sometimes  give  much  annoyance  to  travellers. 
In  situations  removed  from  such  thoroughfares,  but 
in  which  no  school-grounds  are  attached  to  the 
school,  pupils  are  apt  to  trespass  upon  the  neigh- 
boring fields,  sometimes  to  the  damage  of  fences 
and  growing  crops ;  or  to  play  in  the  house,  thereby 
injuring  the  furniture,  and  producing  scenes  of 
uproar  and  confusion. 

Play,  fun,  and  frolic,  most  children  will  have.  It 
is  natural  to  them ;  and  I  have  no  feeling  in  common 
with  that  pedagogical  asceticism  which  laments  this 
disposition  in  the  young,  or  chides  children  for  its 
reasonable  indulgence.  An  active,  wide-awake  child 
is  less  likely  to  throw  his  life  away  to  no  purpose, 
than  a  moping,  dull  one.  School-children  should 
neither  sit  listlessly  about  the  school-house  during 
intermission  and  noon-time,  nor  should  they  be 
allowed  to  run  up  and  down  the  highway,  to  the 
neighboring  creek  or  wood,  through  the  village, 
over  the  adjoining  fields, — anywhere  and  every- 
where their  fickle  fancies  may  prompt.  Both  are 
extremes,  and  both  are  wrong.  Praise  given  to  the 
hard-working  student  who  does  not  rise  from  his 
desk  at  play-time,  is  injudicious  praise ;  and  the 
teacher  whose  care  does  not  follow  his  pupils  while 
engaged  in  play,  neglects  a  very  important  part  of 
his  duty. 

To  avoid  these  causes  of  disorder  in  the  school- 
house  and  out  of  the  school-house,  a  good  play- 
ground well  provided  with  appropriate  apparatus  is 
absolutely  indispensable.  Here,  within  the  hearing 
of  the  teacher  and  under  his  eye,  with  no  danger 

3* 


12      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

to  tliemselves  and  little  opportunity  of  disturbing 
others  or  trespassing  upon  their  rights,  pupils  could 
take  the  liveliest  exercise  and  enjoy  the  merriest 
games  unmolesting  and  unmolested.  Quarrels  would 
be  few  where  the  teacher's  eye  might  witness  them, 
and  vulgar  or  profane  language  would  be  seldom 
heard  where  the  teacher's  ear  might  catch  the  un- 
pleasant sound.  The  hour  of  play  over,  the  pupils 
would  return  to  the  duties  of  the  school-room,  fresh, 
vigorous,  and  ready  for  work.  The  propensity  for 
fun  and  mischief  would  have  exhausted  itself,  and 
most,  if  not  all,  would  be  willing  to  submit  quietly 
to  the  necessary  restraints  of  study-hours. 

The  Promotion  of  Study, — It  cannot  be  doubted, 
from  what  has  already  been  said,  that  children  would 
attend  school  more  regularly,  be  more  attentive  to 
their  studies,  learn  more  and  learn  it  better,  if 
school -houses  were  pleasantly  situated,  school- 
grounds  properly  arranged,  and  school-plays  pro- 
perly conducted. 

Our  ability  to  study  is  greatly  influenced  by  sur- 
rounding circumstances.  No  one  can  sit  down  in  a 
cold,  dark,  gloomy,  uninviting  room  and  study  well ; 
at  least  persons  whose  interest  has  not  become 
completely  absorbed  in  study  cannot  do  so ;  and  this 
fact  has  as  much  significance  in  reference  to  school- 
grounds  as  to  school-houses. 

Let  children  have  suitable  opportunities  for  play, 
for  working  off  their  animal  energy,  and  their  pro- 
gress in  study  will  be  greatly  accelerated.  If  this 
be  done,  they  will  work  more  industriously,  and  be 
able  to  endure,  without  loss  of  health,  much  more 
mental  labor. 


SCHOOL-GEOUNDS.  13 

llie  Cultivation  of  the  Taste, — We  have  around  ua 
silent  teachers.  Mountains  and  valleys,  lakes  and 
rivers,  green  fields  and  clustering  villages,  the  set- 
ting sun,  the  clouds  of  heaven,  the  grand  old  ocean, 
— all  that  is  beautiful  or  sublime  in  the  works  of 
nature  and  art,  elevates  the  mind  and  cultivates  the 
taste;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  disproportioned, 
inharmonious,  deformed,  or  neglected  objects  excite 
no  train  of  pleasurable  emotions,  and  familiarity 
with  such  tends  to  lower  the  standard  by  which  we 
judge  of  the  beautiful.  The  youthful  mind  is  pecu- 
liarly susceptible  to  influences  of  this  kind,  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  unimproved  and  unin- 
viting grounds  about  our  school-houses  tend  to 
deaden  the  natural  sense  of  beauty  and  refinement 
instead  of  quickening  it.  If  school-grounds  were  as 
we  have  shown  they  should  be,  their  silent  teachings 
would  ever  tend  to  the  culture  of  the  noblest  feel- 
ings of  the  human  heart ;  and,  instead  of  that  ruth- 
less disposition  to  destroy,  that  rough,  rude  conduct, 
and  those  careless  habits,  which  so  often  characterize 
the  pupils  of  our  schools,  all  might  have  their  taste 
elevated,  refined,  and  purified. 

The  Furnishing  of  Occasiojis  for  imparting  certain 
Kinds  of  Instruction, — The  most  prominent  use  of  a 
play-ground  is  to  enable  the  pupils  to  obtain  con- 
veniently relaxation  and  exercise.  When  systematic 
gymnastic  training  is  required,  the  teacher  must 
conduct  the  exercises.  The  games  and  plays  of 
children  must  be  allowed  to  proceed  without  unne- 
cessary interference  on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  but 
he  can  sometimes,  if  in  sympathy  with  children, 
make  suggestions  respecting  old  plays,  or  propose 


14      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

new  ones,  that  will  mucli  increase  the  interest  taken 
in  them.     Children  may  be  taught  how  to  play. 

Occasions  will  present  themselves,  too,  when  the 
teacher  can  find  in  the  play-ground  attentive  lis- 
teners to  the  relation  of  an  anecdote  or  story,  or  the 
reading  of  some  interesting  book.  If  a  teacher  will 
take  a  seat  under  a  shade-tree  near  the  school,  and 
offer  to  tell  his  pupils  their  names  and  something 
concerning  all  the  flowers,  minerals,  fossils,  shells, 
or  insects  they  will  bring  to  him,  he  will  need  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  ISTatural  History  if  he  is  able 
to  keep  his  bargain.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  the 
greatest  of  the  ancient  philosophers  taught  in  groves 
and  gardens. 

The  circumstances  of  the  play-ground  may  be 
used  to  impart  important  moral  lessons.  On  the 
play-ground  the  real  character  of  pupils  shows 
itself;  and  the  quick  judgment  of  the  true  teacher 
will  tell  him  when  he  may  give  a  hint  that  will 
awaken  attention  to  the  right  and  the  wrong,  or 
plant  the  seed  of  a  moral  truth  that  will  grow  up 
in  the  heart,  and  produce  fruit  a  hundredfold. 
Even  the  presence  of  the  teacher  on  the  play-ground, 
while  it  need  detract  nothing  from  the  fun  or  frolic, 
will  be  beneficial  in  elevating  the  general  tone  of 
enjoyment.  Unkind  words  will  not  be  spoken,  nor 
selfish  deeds  be  done,  when  he  is  by;  and  good 
qualities  soon  grow  habitual.  Instances,  indeed,  are 
not  wanting  in  which,  when  rebellious  natures  had 
stirred  up  discontent  among  the  pupils,  and  appear- 
ances indicated  the  subversion  of  the  teacher's  au- 
thority, he  was  able,  by  judicious  managenxent  on 


I  SCHOOL-GRADES.  15 

the  play-ground,  to  arrest  the  rising  tumult  and  win 
all  back  to  obedience  and  respect. 

The  Presentation  of  Opportunities  for  studying  the- 
Disposition  of  Pupils, — The  success  of  school-govern- 
ment, anH  even  of  teaching,  depends  very  much 
upon  the  knowledge  the  teacher  possesses  of  his 
pupils'  dispositions.  It  is  on  the  play-ground  that 
pupils  first  encounter  opposing  desires  and  clashing 
wills,  and  the  teacher  can  see  manifested  there, 
much  better  than  in  the  school-room,  all  that  play 
of  passion  and  all  those  springs  of  action  and  diver- 
sities of  character  incident  to  social  life.  Each  in- 
dividual is  himself  on  the  play-ground;  and  the 
teacher,  if  he  freely  mingles  with  his  pupils  while 
at  play,  can  scarcely  fail  to  gather  information  that 
will  aid  him  in  his  school-room  duties  and  prove 
beneficial  to  the  school. 

III.  School- Grades. — Pupils  can  be  classed  ac- 
cording to  the  studies  which  it  is  thought  best  they 
should  pursue.  A  system  of  graded  schools  pro- 
vides a  separate  school  or  a  separate  room  for  each 
class,  or  for  as  many  classes  with  slightly  diff*erent 
attainments  as  can  be  conveniently  accommodated 
in  the  same  room.  Without  some  system  of  this 
kind,  the  education  that  could  be  furnished  by  a 
Common  School  system  would  be  very  imperfect. 

What  is  designed  to  be  said  on  the  subject  of 
school-grades  will  have  reference — 

1.  To  THE  Plans  of  Graded  Schools. 

2.  To  THE  Objects  of  Graded  Schools. 

1.  Plans  of  Graded  Schools. — Plans  of  graded 


16  THE   PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

scliools  involve  considerations  respecting,  first,  the 
number  of  grades^  and,  second,  the  manner  of  grading. 

The  Number  of  Grades. — ^o  principle  can  be  found 
tliat  may  be  used  to  determine  the  number  of  grades 
in  a  system  of  graded  scliools.  Pupils  cannot  be 
classed  according  to  age,  and  studies  admit  divisions 
in  a  hundred  places  as  well  as  in  ten.  The  grada- 
tion of  schools  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  convenience, 
and  its  nature  must  be  determined  by  circumstances. 
Custom,  however,  seems  to  have  fixed  three  general 
grades,  called,  respectively.  Primary  Schools,  Gram- 
mar Schools,  and  High  Schools.  The  rudiments  of 
an  education  are  imparted  in  the  Primary  School, 
the  Grammar  School  carries  on  the  work,  and  the 
High  School  completes  it.  Where  no  Grammar 
Schools  or  High  Schools  exist,  or  where  it  is  incon- 
venient to  patronize  them,  the  Academy  and  the 
Seminary  take  their  place ;  and  those  who  wish  to 
pursue  their  studies  beyond  the  course  contemplated 
by  these  classes  of  institutions  resort  to  the  College 
or  the  University. 

In  large  cities  or  towns.  Primary  Schools  are 
divided  into  several  grades,  very  frequently  into  six 
or  eight,  and  Grammar  Schools  are  likewise  divided 
into  several  grades,  mostly  into  three  or  four.  It  is 
very  evident  that,  in  fixing  the  number  of  grades  for 
a  particular  locality,  certain  knowledge  may  be 
agreed  upon  as  proper  to  be  imparted  in  the  Pri- 
mary Schools,  certain  other  knowledge  as  proper 
to  be  imparted  in  the  Grammar  Schools,  and  the 
remaining  branches  of  the  course  may  be  reserved 
to  be  taught  in  the  High  School ;  but  in  th^s  divi- 
sion of  a  course  of  study,  as  well  as  in  all  subdivi- 


SCHOOL-GRADES  17 

sions  of  it,  the  arrangement  must  be  arbitrary 
The  grades  of  the  schools  might  be  used  to  deter- 
mine the  studies,  just  as  well  as  the  studies  to  deter- 
mine the  grades.  Both  studies  and  grades  must  be 
adjusted  to  one  another  and  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  locality. 

Some  help  to  those  needing  it,  however,  may  be 
rendered  by  the  following  statements,  which  are  in- 
ferences drawn  from  the  results  of  the  systems  of 
grading  schools,  adopted  in  many  places.  They  are 
intended  to  apply  only  to  our  present  social  con- 
dition. 

There  ought  to  be  a  school  for  every  fifty  pupils 
who  are  accustomed  to  attend  school  in  a  district. 
In  thinly  populated  neighborhoods  there  may  be  a 
school  for  a  less  number.  One  teacher  is  wanted 
for  such  a  school ;  and  he  must  classify  his  pupils 
as  best  he  can. 

Wherever  from  fifty  to  eighty  pupils  can  con- 
veniently attend  a  school,  it  should  have  a  recitation- 
room  attached  to  the  school-room,  and  an  assistant 
teacher  should  be  employed.  Such  a  school  can  be 
divided  into  two  divisions,  a  Primary  division  and 
a  Grammar  division,  although  both  divisions  would 
occupy  the  same  room  except  when  reciting. 

When  the  number  of  pupils  attending  one  school 
is  increased  to  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty,  there  should  be  a  school-room  and  two 
recitation -rooms,  a  Principal  and  two  assistant 
teachers.  Such  an  arrangement  will  be  open  to  the 
objection  that  it  brings  older  and  younger  pupils 
together  and  subjects  them  in  some  respects  to  the 
same  discipline ;  but  on  the  whole  it  will  be  found 


18  THE    PREPARATION   FOR   THE    SCHOOL. 

the  cheapest  and  best  mode  (ff  grading — if  grading 
it  can  be  called — for  the  stated  number  of  pupils. 

In  a  rural  neighborhood  or  a  village  where  from 
one  hundred  and  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pupils  can  be  conveniently  collected  into  one  place, 
the  school-house  should  have  three  apartments,  two 
for  Primary  Schools  and  one  for  a  Grammar  School; 
or,  if  preferred,  there  can  be  three  houses,  two  for 
the  Primary  Schools  and  one  for  the  Grammar 
School.  The  pupils  in  the  Grammar  School  w^ill  be 
to  those  in  the  Primary  Schools  in  about  the  ratio 
of  one  to  three.  Provision  must  be  made  for  pupils 
in  Grammar  and  Primary  Schools  in  about  the  same 
ratio  until  their  number  reaches  six  hundred,  when 
. — and  not  safely  before — a  High  School  can  be 
established.  "With  High,  Grammar,  and  Primary 
Schools  the  ratios  of  pupils  in  the  difi*erent  grades 
respectively,  will  stand  about  one,  three,  and  eight; 
and,  consequently,  of  the  six  hundred  pupils  fifty 
will  be  found  in  the  High  School,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  in  the  Grammar  School  or  Schools,  and  four 
hundred  in  the  Primary  Schools.  If  but  one  Gram- 
mar School  be  provided,  there  should  be  three  dis- 
tinct classes,  with  three  teachers;  if  three  such 
schools  be  provided,  each  school  can  be  occupied  by 
pupils  of  one  grade.  The  pupils  attending  the  Pri- 
mary Schools  can  be  divided  into  eight  grades,  if 
so  many  be  desirable,  and  they  can  either  be  accom- 
modated in  one  large  school-building  or  in  separate 
schools. 

From  six  hundred  up  to  any  higher  number,  the 
relative  number  of  pupils  attending  each  grade  of 
schools  will  not  be  much  changed,  and  school-ac- 


SCHOOL-GRADES.  19 

commodations  can  be  made  accordingly.  It  ought 
to  be  remarked,  however,  that  it  has  been  found 
best  in  large  cities  to  raise  the  grade  of  a  High 
School  somewhat  above  that  now  contemplated, 
thus  necessitating  a  rise  in  the  grades  of  the  schools 
below  it. 

The  Manner  of  Grading, — Incidentally,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  number  of  grades,  something  has  been 
said  in  regard  to  manner  of  grading;  but  it  is 
deemed  best  to  make  the  subject  as  clear  as  possi- 
ble by  presenting  it  under  a  distinct  head. 

The  first  system  of  graded  schools  that  will  be  j 
noticed  may  be  called  the  Union  Graded  System.  | 
This  system  consists  in  bringing  all  the  pupils  of 
the  several  grades  to  one  building  designed  for  the 
purpose,  and  uniting  them  under  one  Principal  or 
Superintendent.  Of  course,  separate  apartments 
are  appropriated  to  the  Primary,  Grammar,  and 
High  Schools,  and  to  as  many  subdivisions  of  these 
as  may  be  deemed  expedient.  A  Union  School  with 
an  attendance  of  six  hundred  pupils  would  require 
about  twelve  teachers  and  a  general  Superintendent. 
Eight  teachers  should  be  employed  in  the  Primary 
department,  three  in  the  Grammar  department,  and 
one,  with  such  help  as  could  be  rendered  in  this  de- 
partment by  the  Superintendent,  would  be  sufficient 
for  the  High  School.  If  the  grades  of  pupils  be 
made  to  correspond  with  the  number  of  teachers, — 
as  they  should  be, — it  becomes  an  interesting 
question  as  to  whether  it  is  best  to  assign  a  separate 
loom  to  each  grade  and  each  teacher  and  let  each 
teacher  hear  his  pupils  in  all  their  studies,  or  whether 
it  18  best  to  provide  rooms  large  enough  to  seat  the 


20  THE    PREPARATION   POR   THE    SCHOOL. 

pupils  belonging  to  several  grades,  have  recitation- 
rooms,  a  Principal,  and  the  needed  number  of  as- 
sistants. My  own  well-matured  conviction  is  that 
in  a  Union  School  having  an  attendance  of  six 
hundred  pupils,  which  we  are  taking  as  the  type  of 
this  class  of  schools,  the  best  manner  of  grading  is 
to  provide  four  apartments, — the  first  two  each  large 
enough  to  seat  two  hundred  Primary  pupils,  the 
second  designed  to  accommodate  the  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pupils  who  would  attend  the  Grammar 
School,  and  the  third  arranged  for  the  pupils  of  the 
High  School.  Each  of  the  first  should  have  con- 
nected with  it  three  recitation-rooms ;  the  second, 
two ;  and  the  third,  one.  One  Principal  and  three 
assistants  should  be  employed  in  each  of  the  Pri- 
mary Schools,  one  Principal  and  two  assistants  in 
the  Grammar  School,  and  one  teacher  and  the 
general  Superintendent  could  do  the  work  of  the 
High  School.  I  cannot  give  at  length  here  my 
reasons  for  this  opinion ;  but  it  will  be  found  to 
secure  better  system  in  the  general  working  of  the 
school,  better  discipline  among  the  pupils,  and  more 
effective  teaching, — better  system  and  discipline 
because  the  Principals  would  be  chosen  with  refer- 
ence to  their  executive  abilities  and  disciplinary 
qualifications,  and  more  effective  teaching  because 
each  teacher  could  be  engaged  in  teaching  those 
branches  in  which  he  took  most  delight  or  was  most 
successful.  The  time  the  pupils  spend  in  passing 
in  good  order  from  one  class-room  to  another,  or 
from  study-hall  to  class-room,  need  occupy  but  a  few 
moments,  and  the  movement  will  relieve  them  from 
the  weariness  of  sitting.     All  the  teachers  in  such  a 


SCHOOL-GRADES.  21 

school  must,  of  course,  unite  tlieir  efforts  in  caring 
for  the  moral  and  spiritual  welfare  of  the  pupils 
under  their  charge,  who,  it  seems  to  me,  must  be 
greatly  benefited  by  the  varied  instruction  of  this 
kind  which  they  would  then  receive. 

Separate  Graded  Schools  differ  from  Union  Graded 
Schools  in  this :  in  Union  Schools,  the  pupils  are  all 
brought  to  one  school-house  and  graded  there ;  while 
in  separate  schools,  a  school-house  is  provided  for 
each  grade  of  pupils,  and  a  teacher  employed  to  take 
charge  of  them.  The  school-houses  designed  to 
accommodate  the  Primary  pupils  may  be  placed  in 
different  parts  of  the  district ;  but  the  location  of 
Grammar  and  High  Schools  must  be  more  central. 

A  system  of  Graded  Schools  for  a  city  or  town  may 
consist  partly  of  Union  Schools  and  partly  of  Separate 
Schools.  Local  circumstances  sometimes  render  it 
inconvenient  for  young  children  to  walk  the  distance 
necessary  to  reach  a  Union  School;  and  in  such  cases 
it  is  wise  to  provide  separate  Primary  Schools  for 
them. 

In  regard  to  the  relative  advantages  of  the  Union 
and  Separate  Graded  Systems,  it  might  be  remarked 
that  the  Separate  Graded  System  places  the  schools 
at  a  less  distance  from  the  pupils,  avoids  sudden 
dangers  as  from  fright  or  fire,  and  lessens  the  evils 
of  noise,  confusion,  and  evil  association,  which, 
unless  the  school-grounds  be  very  commodious  and 
the  school-discipline  very  exact,  will  prevail  where 
hundreds  of  children  are  brought  promiscuously 
together.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  stated 
that  Union  Schools  can  be  managed  more  cheaplj^ 
they  admit  better  gradation,  and  can  be  subjected 


22      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

to  a  much  more  complete  supervision.  In  good 
hands,  as  a  working  machine,  Union  Schools  have 
decided  advantage  over  any  other  system. 
/  What  has  been  said  has  reference  to  schools  in 
yAycities  and  towns.  Something  must  be  added  concern- 
ing the  manner  of  grading  schools  in  the  country. 
Of  course,  grading  schools  in  country  districts  is  only 
practicable  in  thickly  settled  neighborhoods.  Here 
it  is  practicable ;  and  the  schools  will  never  produce 
their  full  fruits  without  it. 

If  the  old  school -houses  were  out  of  the  way,  the 
best  manner  of  grading  schools  in  rural  districts 
would  perhaps  be  to  divide  a  township  into  districts 
containing  each  a  school -going  population  of  from 
one  hundred  and  twenty  to  two  hundred,  and  then 
build  two  or  three  Primary  Schools  at  convenient 
places,  and  locate  a  Grammar  School  somewhere 
near  the  centre  of  the  district.  The  younger  pupils 
would  thus  enjoy  school  privileges  by  walking  a 
short  distance,  and  the  older  pupils  could  obtain  a 
better  education  by  going  a  little  longer  distance. 
If  people  really  felt  the  value  of  a  graded  school,  a 
near  approximation  to  this  result  could  often  be 
obtained  without  much  change  in  existing  arrange- 
ments as  to  school-houses. 

Another  mode  of  securing  the  advantages  of 
graded  schools  in  rural  districts  will  be  named, — not 
so  complete  as  the  preceding,  perhaps,  but  against 
which  much  less  opposition  would  be  made.  This 
plan  consists  in  bringing  together  wherever  practi- 
cable— and  it  is  practicable  in  every  thickly  settled 
rural  district — from  fifty  to  eighty  pupils  of  all 
grades,  and  providing  seats  for  them  in  the  same 


SCHOOL-GRADES.  28 

school-room,  but  to  which  a  recitation-room  should 
be  attached.  The  teachers  should  consist  of  a  Prin- 
cipal and  one  assistant,  and  the  pupils  should  be 
divided  into  two  grades  and  subdivided  into  classes. 
One  of  the  teachers  should  remain  in  the  school- 
room all  the  time,  while  the  other  could  hear  classes, 
uninterrupted,  in  the  recitation-room.  Some  classes 
that  could  best  be  heard  in  the  school-room,  might 
be;  though  this  would  not  very  often  be  necessary. 
Where  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  pupils 
could  conveniently  assemble  at  one  house,  there 
should  be  two  recitation-rooms  and  two  teachers. 

The  advantages  of  such  a  system  are  very  great. 
It  enables  the  older  children  in  a  family  to  lend 
their  protection  to  the  younger  ones  in  going  to  and 
coming  from  school.  It  enables  the  school-authori- 
ties to  accommodate  the  increasing  number  of  school- 
children without  building  new  school-houses.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  enlarge  the  old  ones,  where 
they  are  sufficiently  good  to  warrant  it.  It  enables 
these  same  authorities  to  procure  the  services  of  the 
very  best  teachers  as  Principals,  since  they  could 
pay  them  good  salaries.  The  assistants  could  in 
many  cases  be  chosen  from  among  the  oldest  and 
best-qualified  pupils;  they  might  not  be  needed  all 
the  time,  and  would  not  expect  large  compensation. 
Under  the  direction  of  a  competent  Principal,  they 
would  do  their  work  well.  If  selected  because  they 
desired  to  become  teachers,  the  system  might  do 
much  to  provide  its  own  teachers.  With  such  a 
large  number  of  children  from  whom  to  gather 
pupils,  the  Principal  of  each  of  the  schools  graded 
upon    this    plan    could   find    employment  for  ten 


24      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

months  in  the  year;  for  should  the  public  schools 
be  open  a  less  length  of  time,  a  private  school  would 
be  well  patronized.  In  this  way,  teaching  would 
become  a  permanent  business,  and  a  long  step 
would  be  taken  towards  constituting  it  a  profession. 

2.  The  Objects  of  Graded  Schools. — Some  of 
the  most  prominent  objects  the  friends  of  education 
have  had  in  view,  in  advocating  a  system  of  graded 
schools,  are  the  following :  they  economize  the  labor  of 
instruction;  lessen  its  cost;  make  teaching  more  effect- 
ive  ;  ^promote  good  order  in  school ;  prompt  the  ambition 
of  pupils  ;  p>'^^ovide  instruction  in  the  higher  branches  of 
learning;  and  remove  the  necessity  of  children' s  leaving 
home  to  obtain  a  good  education. 

They  economize  the  Labor  of  Instruction, — In  un- 
graded schools  there  is  much  unnecessary  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  labor.  Several  teachers  may  each 
have  a  small  class  in  a  branch  of  learning,  whose 
recitations  require  about  as  much  time  as  if  all  the 
classes  were  combined.  Less  interest,  too,  is  always 
taken,  both  by  pupils  and  teachers,  in  small  classes 
than  in  those  which  are  larger.  Graded  schools 
diminish  the  number  of  classes,  and  thus  economize 
the  labor  of  instruction. 

They  lessen  the  Cost  of  Teaching, — If  graded  schools 
decrease  the  number  of  classes,  they  likewise  de- 
crease the  number  of  teachers  required  to  conduct 
them,  and  in  this  way  lessen  the  cost  of  teaching. 

They  make  Teaching  more  effective, — As  has  already 
been  said,  ten  or  fifteen  pupils  will  make  more  rapid 
progress  in  a  class  than  two  or  three.  But  the  chief 
reason  why  teaching  is  more  eftective  in  graded  than 
in  ungraded  schools  is  because  in  the  former  no 


SCHOOL-GRADES.  25 

advantage  can  "be  taken  of  the  teacher's  special  tastes 
or  special  talents.  When  a  teacher  is  compelled  to 
teach  ten  or  a  dozen  dilSerent  branches,  as  must  be 
the  case  not  unfrequently  in  ungraded  schools,  he 
can  make  but  little  special  preparation  for  teaching 
any  of  them;  and  if  he  is  more  fond  of  some 
branches  than  of  others,  has  a  better  knowledge 
of  them,  or  succeeds  better  in  teaching  them, — and 
this  will  always  be  the  fact, — ^he  has  no  alternative 
but  to  do  his  best  in  the  unfavorable  circumstances 
in  which  he  finds  himself.  A  well-managed  graded 
school  has  its  teaching-forces  so  distributed  as  to  do 
the  most  effective  work. 

They  promote  good  Order, — Graded  schools  admit, 
from  the  very  nature  of  their  organization,  better 
system  and  better  discipline  than  would  be  possible 
if  the  same  number  of  pupils  were  distributed  in 
ungraded  schools.  The  government  of  a  school  is 
not  so  easy  where  large  and  small  pupils  prepare 
and  recite  their  lessons  in  the  same  apartment,  as 
many  sources  of  disturbance  arise  which  their  sepa- 
ration would  remove.  The  easiest  school  to  govern, 
other  things  being  equal,  is  one  in  which  all  the 
pupils  in  the  school-room  prepare  their  lessons  at 
the  same  time  and  recite  them  at  the  same  time. 

They  prompt  the  Ambition  of  Pupils. — A  pupil  who 
enters  a  graded  school  has  something  in  addition  to 
the  usual  motives  to  prompt  his  ambition.  He 
knows  that  there  are  higher  schools,  he  sees  his 
companions  transferred  to  them,  and  he  naturally 
works  harder  to  hasten  his  own  going.  If  judi- 
ciously managed,  the  constant  spur  of  such  a  motive 
may  be  made  to  do  much  good. 


26  THE   PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

They  provide  Instruction  in  the  higher  Branches  of 
Learning. — Respecting  the  value  of  what  are  called 
the  higher  branches  of  an  education,  there  is  but 
one  opinion  among  those  who  are  competent  to 
judge;  and  that  is,  that  no  one  can  be  able  to  appre- 
ciate the  true  worth  of  knowledge  who  neglects  the 
study  of  them.  To  avoid  distinctions  in  society,  to 
bring  out  all  the  talent  a  people  may  possess,  as  well 
as  to  allow  the  privileges  of  liberal  learning  to  be 
enjoyed,  wherever  possible,  by  the  poor  and  the  rich 
alike,  the  course  of  study  in  our  Common  Schools 
ought  to  be  so  extended  as  to  embrace  a  number 
of  the  higher  branches  of  learning. 

For  one  teacher  to  give  instruction  in  an  ungraded 
school,  in  more  branches  than  Reading,  Writing, 
Arithmetic,  Geography,  and  Grammar,  is  wellnigh 
an  impossibility.  Either  our  schools  must  be  graded, 
or  the  education  of  the  great  majority  of  our  people 
must  stop  at  this  point. 

Theg  remove  the  Necessity  of  leaving  Home  to  obtain  a 
good  Educaiioyu — It  has  been  shown  that  the  schools 
even  in  most  of  our  rural  districts  can  be  graded, 
and,  when  graded,  that  the  higher  branches  of 
learning  can  be  taught  in  them ;  and  this  removes 
all  necessity  of  leaving  home  to  obtain  a  good  edu- 
cation. Some  writer  upon  the  subject  of  education 
says,  "All  schools  are  a  necessary  evil.'*  Wliat  he^ 
means  is  that,  if  education  could  be  obtained  in  the 
family,  it  would  be  much  better  than  in  a  school  of 
any  kind.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not,  it  is  cer- 
tainly true  that  the  dangers  of  school-life — and  they 
are  neither  few  nor  trifling — increase  in  proportion 
to  the  distance  the  child  is  removed  from  the  farailv. 


SCHOOL-STUDIES.  2*1 

"When  children  can  be  with  their  parents  all  tho 
time  except  the  six  or  eight  hours  they  spend  at  the 
District  School  in  company  with  other  children  of 
the  neighborhood,  they  are  comparatively  safe ;  but 
the  moral  danger  becomes  very  great  when  young 
persons  are  placed  at  even  the  best-regulated  board- 
ing-schools, where  the  watchful  eyes  and  constant 
promptings  of  loving  parents  cannot  follow  to  shield 
them  from  harm.  If  parents  rightly  appreciated 
this  one  view  of  the  matter,  the  earnest  educator 
would  not  have  long  to  wait  for  the  establishment 
of  graded  schools. 

IV.  School-Studies. — The  thoughtful  educator 
finds  no  more  difiicult  problem  than  that  which  is 
to  determine  the  branches  of  knowledge  which 
should  be  embraced  in  a  course  of  school-studies,  and 
arrange  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  pursued. 
The  performance  of  this  task  will  not  be  attempted 
in  this  volume,  as  the  discussion  of  the  subject 
would  involve  principles  which  do  not  come  within 
its  scope.  But,  in  order  to  render  as  much  help  as 
possible  to  the  teacher,  some  practical  suggestions 
will  be  made  in  regard  to  studies  for  Primary  Schools^ 
Grammar  Schools^  High  Schools  and  Academies^  and  Col- 
leges. Details  must  be  left  to  those  who  write  spe- 
cially upon  this  subject. 

1.  Studies  for  Primary  Schools. — Children 
enter  our  Primary  Schools  at  the  age  of  five  or 
six  years.  They  already  possess  considerable  know- 
ledge, and  the  teacher  should  begin  his  instruction 
where  that  knowledge  ends,  and  follow  as  closely  as 


28  THE   PREPARATION   FOR  THE   SCHOOL. 

possible  the  methods — nature's  methods — ^by  which 
it  was  acquired. 

The  most  prominent  kind  of  instruction  that 
should  be  imparted  in  our  Primary  Schools  is  Les- 
sons on  Objects.  A  better  name  would  perhaps  be 
Intuitive  Exercises.  These  lessons  are  adapted  to 
the  mental  condition  of  young  children,  and  in- 
tended to  gratify  their  curiosity,  discipline  their 
senses  and  their  powers  of  observation,  develop 
their  thinking  faculties,  and  improve  their  language. 
The  matter  of  such  lessons  consists  of  the  most 
important  qualities  and  phenomena  of  objects;  and, 
to  make  the  instruction  effective,  each  class  should 
receive  two  lessons  daily.  Some  well-arranged  sys- 
tem should  be  followed  in  selecting  objects  for 
lessons,  and  in  conducting  the  recitations.  Suitable 
apparatus  is  an  indispensable  auxiliary  to  success  in 
Object  Teaching.  Books  treating  of  this  subject 
must  be  referred  to  for  further  information. 

Children  in  Primary  Schools  ought  to  be  taught 
the  names  and  the  sounds  of  the  letters  of  the  Al- 
phabet; and  they  ought  also  to  receive  careful 
instruction  in  Pronouncing,  Spelling,  Defining,  Ele- 
mentary Reading,  and  Oral  Composition.  They  may 
write,  as  soon  as  they  are  able,  accounts  of  things 
seen  or  heard  of  by  them.  The  committing  and 
speaking  of  pieces  is  an  old  exercise,  but  by  no 
means  a  useless  one.  Appropriate  narratives,  de- 
scriptions, and  stories  may  be  read  to  such  children 
with  great  profit  to  them. 

The  studies  of  Drawing  and  Writing  must  claim 
a  large  share  of  attention  in  the  Primary  School. 

Pupils  in  Primary  Schools  will  take  great  delig^it 


SCHOOL-STUDIES.  29 

in  performing  elementary  Arithmetical  Exercises, 
and  may  be  shown  some  of  the  simplest  Geomet- 
rical truths. 

Little  songs  and  hymns  should  be  committed  and 
sung.  Both  teacher  and  pupils  will  be  the  better 
for  it. 

2.  Studies  for  Grammar  Schools. — Object  Les- 
sons must  be  continued  in  the  Grammar  Schools, 
the  objects  chosen  for  lessons  and  the  manner  of 
imparting  the  instruction  concerning  them  being 
adapted  to  the  age  and  acquirements  of  the  pupils. 
In  this  manner,  much  knowledge  of  such  sciences 
as  Botany,  Mineralogy,  Geology,  Chemistry,  Natural 
Philosophy,  and  Physiology  can  be  profitably  im- 
parted. No  instruction  that  could  possibly  be  given 
in  a  Grammar  School  can  exceed  this  in  value. 

A  list  of  Grammar  School  studies  must  embrace 
Spelling,  Defining,  Reading,  Composition,  and  the 
Elements  of  Grammar.  One  year  is  quite  long 
enough  for  pupils  to  spend  in  the  study  of  Grammar 
before  entering  the  High  School.  They  can  gene- 
rally learn  all  of  it  they  can  comprehend  in  that 
time,  and  the  remaining  time  usually  wasted  upon 
this  study  can  be  much  better  employed  in  studying 
the  Elements  of  the  Natural  Sciences,  tis  before  sug- 
gested. 

Geography  may  be  studied  from  a  text-book,  and 
likewise  the  History  of  the  United  States. 

Instruction  in  Drawing  and  Writing  must  con- 
tinue in  all  the  grades. 

Elementary  Arithmetic,  both  Written  and  Oral, 
can  be  completed  in  the  Grammar  School.  If  de- 
sirable, considerable  progress  might  be  made  in  the 


30      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

studies  of  Elementary  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Algebra.     Better  these  than  Higher  Arithmetic. 

Pupils  in  Grammar  Schools  should  be  taught  to 
sing  by  note.  Vocal  Music  is  very  appropriate,  both 
at  the  opening  and  the  closing  of  the  school. 

3.  Studies  for  High  Schools. — The  principal 
studies  embraced  in  a  High  School  Course  are  in- 
cluded in  the  following  classification: — Language, 
Inductive  Sciences,  Deductive  Sciences,  and  His- 
tory; and  the  teacher  will  not  make  any  great 
mistake  if  he  require  his  pupils  to  devote  about  an 
equal  length  of  time  to  each  class. 

In  Language,  Grammar,  Khetoric,  Composition, 
Elocution,  and  English  Literature  must  be  carefully 
studied ;  and  if  the  study  of  any  of  the  modern  or 
ancient  languages  be  contemplated,  and  no  progress 
have  been  previously  made  in  them,  it  must  be  now 
commenced,  and  pushed  forward  as  far  as  time  and 
other  circumstances  will  admit. 

From  the  many  Inductive  Sciences,  it  may  be  a 
somewhat  difficult  task  for  the  High  School  autho- 
rities to  select  such  as  should  be  embraced  in  the 
High  School  curriculum.  The  following  branches, 
however,  cannot  well  be  omitted: — Geography,  Bo- 
tany, Zoology,  Geology,  Astronomy,  Natural  Phi- 
losophy, Chemistry,  Physiology,  and  Psychology. 

The  most  prominent  place  among  the  Deductive 
Sciences  is  generally  given  to  Mathematics.  Of 
Mathematical  branches,  there  should  be  studied  in 
the  High  School,  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Geometry, 
Trigonometry,  and  their  various  applications.  The 
elements  of  Logic,  Ethics,  ^Esthetics,  and  Political 
Science,  or  Metaphysics  generally,  may  be  studied 


SCHOOL-STUDIES.  31 

with  great  profit  by  those  whose  minds  are  suffi- 
ciently matured. 

History,  as  studied  in  a  High  School,  should  con- 
sist of  a  Compend  of  Universal  History,  together 
with  Detailed  Histories  of  the  most  noted  nations 
of  ancient  and  modern  times.  The  history  of  the 
several  sciences  and  arts  should  be  included  in  this 
course. 

What  has  now  been  said  in  reference  to  a  course 
of  study  for  High  Schools,  it  is  conceived,  will 
apply,  with  slight  modifications,  to  the  courses  of 
study  designed  for  Academies  and  Seminaries. 

4.  Studies  for  Colleges. — ^Language,  Inductive 
Science,  Deductive  Science,  and  History,  constitute 
the  chief  studies  of  Colleges,  as  of  High  Schools 
and  Academies.  The  relative  values  of  these  several 
classes  of  studies  are  differently  estimated  in  dif- 
ferent institutions;  but  the  application  of  a  true 
standard  would  probably  reveal  the  fact  that  no  one 
class,  either  on  account  of  the  truths  it  embodies  or 
on  account  of  the  discipline  it  furnishes,  can  esta- 
blish any  stronger  claims  upon  the  pupil's  time  than 
the  others.  Too  much  time,  probably,  is  now  devoted 
in  our  colleges  to  the  study  of  Language,  and,  it  may 
be,  to  Mathematics,  in  proportion  to  the  time  devoted 
to  other  studies.  If  students  in  college  can  make 
four  recitations  daily,  I  would  have  them  recite  once 
in  a  branch  of  study  belonging  respectively  to  each 
of  the  classes  above  named.  This  conclusion  is  not 
stated  hastily,  but  only  after  mature  deliberation. 

Language,  as  studied  in  a  College,  should  embrace 
English  Literature,  Composition,  and  Elocution. 
The  classic  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome  should 


82  THE    PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

be  thoroughly  mastered.  If  the  student  has  time, 
he  should  add  to  his  other  acquirements  a  knowledge 
of  French  and  Grerman,  or  other  modern  languages. 
Some  investigation  into  the  science  of  language 
itself  may  crown  the  work  of  this  department. 

The  popular  knowledge  of  the  Inductive  Sciences 
which  students  may  have  obtained  in  High  Schools 
and  Academies  must  be  made  precise  and  systematic 
in  the  College.  Students  must  be  taught  to  look 
deeper  down  into  nature,  and  to  take  broader  views 
of  the  facts  and  laws  which  they  witness.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  name  particular  studies,  for  all  seem 
equally  valuable  ;  and  fresh  truths  may  still  be 
gathered  from  the  great  store-house  in  which  they 
were  placed  by  God  himself. 

The  Deductive  Sciences  start  out  with  universal 
principles  which  are  revealed  by  the  reason,  and  are 
completed  by  the  addition  of  the  new  truths  which 
are  found  contained  in  these  principles,  by  a  process 
of  logical  evolution.  It  is  in  this  field  that  nearly 
all  the  great  philosophers  have  labored,  and  the 
results  of  these  labors  constitute  the  proudest  monu- 
ments of  the  human  intellect.  In  this  department, 
the  students  in  our  Colleges  should  study  the  Higher 
Mathematics,  Rational  Physics,  and  several  branches 
of  Metaphysics,  as  Rational  Psychology,  Logic, 
Ethics,  and  Esthetics. 

The  course  of  reading  in  Histor^^-  maybe  extended 
in  the  College  to  embrace  the  History  of  Science, 
the  History  of  Art,  the  History  of  God's  dealings 
with  men,  the  Bible,  and  the  most  difficult  of  all 
studies,  the  Philosophy  of  History. 

Professors  in  a  College  are  supposed  to  be  ac- 


SCHOOL-HOUSES.  88 

quainted  with  all  that  is  known  respecting  the 
branches  they  teach,  and  to  be  able  to  conduct  the 
student  in  making  original  investigations.  Teaching 
in  the  lower  schools  must  consist,  in  good  measure, 
in  making  pupils  acquainted  with  text-books ;  but 
in  College  they  should  be  taken  beyond  text-books 
and  made  to  gather  the  fruit  of  knowledge  fresh 
from  the  garden  of  nature. 

V.  School -Houses. — It  is  not  within  the  design 
of  this  volume  to  treat  at  length  of  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  school-houses.  To  practice 
teaching  successfully  requires  a  suitable  place  and 
proper  means  to  carry  on  the  work.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  any  thing  is  now  said  in  reference  to  the 
subject,  and  most  that  will  be  said  will  be  confined 
to  suggestions  in  regard  to  Common  School  houses 
in  rural  districts,  where  such  information  is  so  much 
needed. 

The  particulars  respecting  school-houses  which 
require  notice  are — 

1.  Size. — The  size  of  a  school -house  should 
depend  mainly  upon  the  number  of  pupils  it  is  in- 
tended to  accommodate.  A  house  designed  for  an 
ungraded  school  to  be  taught  by  a  single  teacher 
should  not  contain  less  than  nine  hundred  square  feet. 
Such  a  house  will  furnish  room  for  vestibules, 
closets,  platform,  &c.,  and  leave  suflSlcient  to  seat 
about  fifty  pupils  and  to  hear  their  recitations.  A 
house  built  to  accommodate  from  fifty  to  eighty 
pupils,  and  provide  them  with  a  recitation-room, 
should  contain  not  less  than  fifteen  hundred  square 
feet ;  and  one  to  accommodate  from  eighty  to  one 


34      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

hundred  and  twenty  pupils,  with  two  recitation- 
rooms,  should  have  an  area  of  something  like  two 
thousand  square  feet. 

2.  Form. — The  best  form  lor  school-houses  in 
rural  districts  is  rectangular,  the  door  entering  at 
the  south  end,  and  the  north  end  being  without 
windows.  The  dimensions  of  the  three  kinds 
of  school-houses  contemplated  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  may  be,  respectively,  the  first  thirty-eight 
feet  by  twenty-five,  the  second  fifty-two  feet  by 
thirty,  and  the  third  fifty-six  feet  by  thirty-two.  The 
ceiling  in  all  cases  must  be  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
feet  high,  as  it  will  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  room 
and  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  its  occupants. 

3.  Internal  Arrangements. — All  school-houses 
should  possess  rooms  for  hats,  bonnets,  shawls,  over- 
coats, umbrellas,  dinner-baskets,  &c. ;  recitation- 
rooms,  or  convenient  spaces  for  pupils  during  reci- 
tation ;  a  large  platform  for  the  teacher,  and  for  use 
at  examinations  and  exhibitions ;  places  for  book- 
cases and  apparatus-closets;  a  large  surface  of  blank 
wall  for  blackboards ;  and  seats  for  all  the  pupils, 
with  aisles  between  them  for  ingress  and  egress.  The 
diagram  on  page  35  will  indicate  better  than  any 
description  the  manner  of  making  provisions  for  all 
these  desiderata  in  an  ungraded  Common  School. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


35 


w 


A 

W 


n 


B 

w 
E 


A.  Clothes-room  for  boys,  8  ft.  by  9. 

B.  Clothes-room  for  girls,  8  ft.  by  9. 
\V  W  W  W.  Windows. 

D  D  D  D.  Doors. 

E  E.  Portico,  6  ft.  wide,  columns  sanded. 
E  F.  Platform,  15  in.  high,  in  two  risers. 
L.  Passage,  6  ft.  wide,  lighted  by  a  window 

placed  above  the  door. 
S.  Heat  Register:    if  a  stove  is  used,  it 

mnst  be  placed  near  the  centre  of  the 

room. 
X  Y  X  Y.  Smoke-flue  and  ventiduct  the 

Matter  in  front. 
G    Teacher's  desk  or  table. 


H  H.  Cases  for  books  and  apparatus. 

K  K  K  K.  Blackboard-surface. 

I  III.  Recitation -benches,  those  back, 

when   not  in  use,  to  be  placed  on  the 

platform,  and  those  in  front  against  the 

partitions. 
C  C  C  C.  Desks,  4  ft.  long,  \\  ft.  wide,  and 

from  25  to  29  in.  high. 
M  M  M  M.  Seats,  from  12  in.  to  16  in.  high. 
N  N  N  N.  Aisles,  1^  ft.  wide. 
0  0.  Main  aisle,  3  ft.  wide. 
Q  Q  Q  Q.  Space  back  of  seats,  3  ft.  wide. 
P  P.  Space  front  of  platform,  3  ft.  wide. 


86  THE   PREPARATION   FOR   THE    SCHOOL. 

In  connection  with,  the  foregoing  plan  of  an  un- 
graded Common  School,  it  may  be  useful  also  to 
present  the  design  of  one  with  a  recitation-room  at- 
tached to  the  school-room  and  calculated  to  accom- 
modate pupils  sufficient  to  employ  two  teachers. 

It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  explain  the  several 
parts  of  this  design,  as  the  letters  are  used  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  preceding  diagram.  The  re- 
citation-room is  made  ten  feet  wide,  and  supplied 
with  seats  and  plenty  of  blackboard-surface.  The 
book  and  apparatus  cases  are  placed  in  the  recita- 
tion-room, as  more  convenient.  One  good  furnace 
will  heat  both  rooms.  The  school-room  has  been 
furnished  with  seats  for  eighty  pupils :  by  making 
it  somewhat  larger,  if  would  seat  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pupils,  in  which  case  the  recitation-room 
could  be  enlarged  and  divided,  and  two  assistant 
teachers  should  be  employed,  as  elsewhere  stated. 

Space  is  economized  by  having  double  desks;  but 
single  desks  are  better  than  double  ones  in  several 
respects.  Each  pupil  likes  to  have  his  own  desk; 
and  he  will  take  more  care  of  it  than  if  he  possesses 
it  in  partnership  witb  another.  It  promotes  order, 
too,  by  separating  the  pupils. 

The  aisles  between  the  desks  ought,  if  practicable, 
to  be  wider  than  one  and  a  half  feet,  as  this  width 
will  scarcely  admit  of  quick  passage  between  them, 
and  entirely  precludes  certain  gymnastic  movements 
which  are  quite  essential  to  the  health  of  pupils 
and  ought  not  to  be  overlooked.  The  partitions 
between  the  school-room  and  the  clothes-rooms 
should  be  made  movable.  The  walls  of  a  school- 
house  should  be  painted  stone-color,  or  a  lightish 


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38      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

brown ;  and  clierry  or  walnut  is  the  best  color  for 
scbool-furniture.  For  plans  of  larger  school-bouses 
than  these,  as  well  as  for  full  details  in  reference  to 
the  subject,  the  inquirer  must  resort  to  some  work 
on  School  Architecture. 

4.  Eecitation-Rooms. — The  shape  generally  most 
convenient  for  a  recitation-room  is  rectangular;  and 
one  in  which  the  work  of  the  recitation  is  mostly  writ- 
ten out  upon  blackboards  should  be  about  twice  as 
long  as  wide.  Schools  requiring  several  recitation- 
rooms  may  appropriate  one  to  the  hearing  of  classes 
in  each  study  or  each  class  of  studies  taught  in  the 
institution,  and  adapt  the  room,  its  furniture  and 
apparatus,  to  the  end  it  is  intended  to  subserve.  For 
example,  one  room  might  be  appropriated  to  Mathe- 
matics, and  be  supplied  with  tables,  blocks,  models, 
diagrams,  mathematical  instruments,  and  books  for 
reference ;  another,  to  Geography  and  History,  and 
be  supplied  with  Tellurians,  globes,  maps,  charts, 
gazetteers,  stereoscopes,  pictures,  antiquities;  an- 
other, to  Natural  Science,  whose  cases  should  contain 
a  full  supply  of  apparatus,  and  whose  shelves  should 
be  filled  with  choice  specimens  from  every  depart- 
ment of  nature ;  and  still  another,  to  Art,  around 
whose  walls  should  hang  specimens  of  writing  and 
drawing,  engravings,  paintings,  and  in  whose  niches 
might  be  placed  a  few  pieces  of  statuary.  A  hint 
is  all  that  is  here  intended;  and  school-authorities 
must  make  the  application  for  themselves.  That 
something  of  the  kind  might  be  done  in  every  Union 
School,  Academy,  or  College,  does  not  admit  of  a 
doubt,  and,  if  done,  there  is  just  as  little  doubt  ot  its 
benefits.     A  recitation-room,  arranged  with  taste  in 


SCHOOL-HOUSES.  39 

the  spirit  of  these  suggestions,  would  of  itself  he  a 
silent  but  most  effectual  teacher,  and  pleasant  asso- 
ciations would  ever  cluster  about  it. 

5.  The  Cellar. — The  uses  of  a  school-house 
cellar  are,  to  keep  the  floor  dry,  to  store  away  fuel, 
and  to  furnish  a  suitable  place  for  locating  the  stove 
or  furnace.  The  cellar  can  also  be  used,  when  pro- 
perly lighted  and  ventilated,  as  a  place  for  play  in 
unpleasant  weather ;  and  it  ought  to  be  constructed 
with  reference  to  that  end.  When  thus  used,  the 
ceiling  should  not  be  less  than  eight  feet  in  height, 
and  extend  at  least  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  inside  walls  should  be  roughly  plas- 
tered. An  entrance  must  be  provided,  at  some  con- 
venient place,  from  the  school-room  to  the  cellar. 

6.  Lighting. — Light  is  necessary  to  health.  Facts 
show  that  people  who  live  in  well-lighted  houses 
suffer  less  from  disease  than  those  who  are  sur- 
rounded by  circumstances  which  either  in  whole  or 
in  part  exclude  the  light.  Plenty  of  light,  too, 
renders  a  room  more  cheerful  and  inviting. 

The  best  place,  probably,  of  admitting  the  light 
is  from  the  roof  by  a  sky-light.  In  that  case  it 
would  be  steady,  equally  distributed  about  the  room, 
and  free  from  shadow.  As  such  an  arrangement  is 
not  often  practicable,  the  next  best  mode  of  admit- 
ting light  is  from  rows  of  windows  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  school-house.  Light  coming  from  behind 
casts  shadows  in  front,  which  render  the  light  un- 
equal, and  when  it  comes  towards  the  eyes  it  is 
apt  to  injure  them  by  its  glare.  All  school-house- 
windows  ought  to  be  provided  with  shutters,  but 
curtains  at  least  are  indispensable. 


40  THE   PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

7.  Heating. — The  common  mode  in  whicli  our 
school-liouses  are  heated  is  very  objectionable.  A 
stove  is  generally  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  room, 
and  in  cold  weather  those  pupils  who  sit  close  to  it 
often  suffer  from  the  heat,  while  those  who  sit  at 
some  distance  from  it  as  frequently  suffer  from  the 
cold.  The  temperature  of  the  several  parts  of  a 
school -room  heated  in  this  manner  differs  many 
degrees.  The  locality  of  the  stove,  too,  is  generally 
covered  with  dust  and  dirt,  or  cumbered  with  fuel; 
and  sometimes  it  becomes  the  point  where  the  idle 
gather  to  put  in  their  time  and  the  mischievous  col- 
lect to  carry  on  their  tricks.  The  noise  made  in 
keeping  up  fires,  and  the  smoke  arising  from  them, 
are  sources  of  annoyance. 

To  avoid  these  disagreeable  effects,  the  heating 
apparatus  should  be  located  in  the  cellar.  A  small 
part  of  the  cellar  would  answer  for  heater  and  fuel. 
Only  a  small  heater  would  be  needed  to  heat  a  single 
room,  and  such  can  be  had  at  a  price  little  above 
that  of  a  large  stove;  or  a  stove  may  be  used,  if 
surrounded  with  a  tin  casing  so  as  to  force  all  the 
heat  through  the  register  into  the  room  above,  in- 
stead of  distributing  it  about  the  cellar.  If  only  so 
much  cellar  be  excavated  as  to  allow  space  for  the 
location  of  a  heater  and  for  the  storing  of  fuel,  en- 
trance may  be  had  to  it  from  the  school-room  by 
means  of  a  trap-door  placed  where  it  will  be  least 
in  the  way.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  air  which 
feeds  the  heater  be  pure  and  fresh.  Heated  air 
thrown  into  a  room  at  any  point  will  diffuse  itself 
quite  equally  throughout  the  room. 

If  a  stove  must  be  placed  in  the  room,  it  should 


SCHOOL-HOUSES.  41 

be  surrounded  witli  a  tin  casing  made  to  extend 
from  the  floor  to  about  one  foot  above  the  top  of  the 
stove.  There  should  be  a  door  in  the  casing  for 
putting  in  fuel;  and  a  trunk  for  the  conveyance  of 
fresh  air  should  start  outside  of  the  building,  run 
under  the  floor,  and  communicate  directly  with  the 
stove.  This  arrangement  will  distribute  the  heat 
much  better  about  the  room,  and  avoid  those  cold 
currents  of  air  which  always,  in  a  room  heated  by 
an  ordinary  stove,  sweep  along  the  floor  from  the 
bottom  of  doors  and  windows,  and  openings  in  the 
floor  or  walls. 

Large  school-buildings  are  generally  kept  warm  by 
furnaces  which  heat  the  air,  or  an  apparatus  which 
generates  steam ;  but  no  description  of  these  can  be 
given  here. 

8.  Ventilation. — All  the  windows  of  a  school- 
room should  be  hung  with  pulleys,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  easily  raised  or  lowered.  If  windows  and 
doors  are  skilfully  used,  a  tolerably  good  degree  of 
ventilation  can  be  secured.  The  ventilation  will  be 
much  more  perfect  if  the  arrangement  be  adopted 
which  is  indicated  in  the  designs  representing  the 
internal  arrangements  of  a  school-house.  In  this 
arrangement,  the  smoke-flue  starts  from  the  cellar 
and  runs  out  at  the  roof;  and,  starting  at  the  floor 
of  the  school-room,  a  ventiduct  is  carried  up  in 
front  of  it,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  sheet-iron 
partition.  In  this  way  the  smoke  in  the  flue  will 
heat,  and  of  course  expand,  the  air  in  the  ventiduct, 
and  make  it  rise  in  a  strong  current,  while  the  air  in 
the  ventiduct  will  not  interfere  with  the  draft  in  the 
flue.     The  smoke-flue  should  be  about  twenty-four 


42      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

iiiclies  by  nine  inches,  and  the  ventiduct  the  same. 
The  stove  or  furnace  may  have  two  pipes,  one  run- 
ning to  each  smoke-flue.  The  ventiduct  should  have 
two  registers,  one  at  the  ceiling  and  the  other  at  the 
floor,  though  during  the  school  sessions — unless  the 
room  be  too  warm — the  upper  one  should  be 
closed.  Impure  air  is  heavier  than  other  air,  and 
will  generally  flnd  egress  from  near  the  floor. 

Nothing  can  be  said  in  a  work  like  this  of  the 
complicated  arrangements  necessary  for  ventilating 
large  buildings;  and  those  who  want  information 
must  seek  for  it  elsewhere. 

VI.  School-Furniture. — Some  suggestions  are 
deemed  appropriate  in  respect  to  school-furniture. 
They  will  be  made  under  the  following  heads. 

1.  Desks  and  Seats. — Pupils  in  a  school-room 
should  sit  facing  the  teacher,  and  all  should  have 
assigned  them  seats  and  desks  adapted  to  their 
height,  neatly  constructed,  and  so  designed  as  to 
place  the  occupants  in  comfortable  positions.  The 
seats  may  be  from  twelve  inches  to  sixteen  inches 
in  height,  and  the  desks,  if  intended  for  two  pupils 
each,  may  be  from  twenty-five  inches  to  twenty-nine 
inches  in  height,  eighteen  inches  wide,  and  four  feet 
long;  and  if  for  one,  two  feet  long,  the  other 
dimensions  remaining  the  same.  A  desk  and  seat 
will  occupy  a  space  upon  the  floor  of  nearly  or  quite 
three  feet  in  length.  If  seats  could  be  so  contrived 
as  to  remain  firm  when  placed  horizontally  to  allow 
the  pupil  to  lean  forward  easily  to  write  upon  his 
desk,  and  then  could  be  made  to  have  an  inclination 
backwards  when  the  pupil  desires  to  read  or  study, 


SCHOOL-FURNITURE.  43 

it  would  add  much  to  his  comfort  in  sitting,  and 
something,  perhaps,  to  the  comeliness  of  his  figure. 
Both  desks  and  seats  should  be  firmly  fastened  to 
the  floor.  Inkstands  should  never  be  set  in  the 
desks,  because  their  lids  are  apt  to  be  left  open  or 
broken  off,  and  the  desks  around  them  are  almost 
always  stained  with  ink. 

The  teacher  will  find  a  table  placed  near  the 
centre  of  the  platform  more  convenient  than  a  desk, 
especially  if  there  be  cases  for  books  and  apparatus; 
and  these  seem  indispensable.  The  teacher's  table 
should  not  be  stationary. 

Sacks  ought  to  be  provided  for  the  recitation-seats, 
and  these  seats  should  generally  be  movable.  A 
seat  might  be  placed  in  front  of  each  of  the  desks 
next  to  the  platform,  and  others,  attached  to  these 
with  hinges,  might,  when  needed,  make  the  con- 
nections across  the  aisles,  and,  when  not  needed, 
rest  upon  the  top  of  those  in  front  of  the  desks. 

2.  Platform. — A  platform  a  few  feet  square  might 
be  sufficiently  large  for  the  teacher's  table ;  but  there 
are  numerous  occasions  in  every  school  when  the 
pupils  are  required  to  recite  before  spectators,  and 
at  such  times  classes  appearto  much  better  advantage 
on  a  platform  facing  the  audience.  For  this  reason, 
the  platform  should  extend  the  whole  width  of  the 
school-room,  and  be  at  least  six  feet  wide.  Its  height 
ought  to  be  about  fifteen  inches,  with  two  risers. 
The  proper  place  in  ungraded  schools  for  book  and 
apparatus  cases  is  at  the  ends  of  the  platform. 

3.  Blackboard. — The  blackboard  is  an  indispen- 
sable article  of  school-furniture ;  as  much  so  as  the 
plough  to  the  farmer,  the  plane  to  the  carpenter,  or 


44  THE    PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  scalpel  to  the  surgeon.  It  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  all  recitations  in  all  studies. 

A  blackboard  should  be  placed  immediately  be- 
nind  the  platform  and  extend  its  whole  length,  and 
elsewhere  all  around  the  school-room  wherever  suit- 
able blank  wall  can  be  taken  advantage  of.  I  never 
heard  a  good  teacher  complain  that  he  had  more 
blackboard-surface  than  he  could  use.  The  teacher 
will  want  blackboards  for  his  classes  while  engaged 
in  reciting,  and  also  for  others  who  are  preparing 
to  recite.  Young  pupils  can  be  profitably  employed 
in  drawing  or  writing  on  blackboards  while  the 
teacher  is  hearing  the  lessons  of  older  pupils. 

The  blackboard  may  be  five  feet  wide,  and  extend 
to  within  two  feet  of  the  floor. 

The  best  kind  of  blackboards  are  made  of  slate. 
They  can  be  had  four  or  five  feet  square;  but  they 
are  too  costly  for  general  use.  If  wood  is  used,  it 
must  be  well-seasoned  pine  or  poplar,  of  fine  quality, 
and  the  blackboards  must  be  well  made  and  care- 
fully painted. 

A  cheap  and  serviceable  black-surface  for  walls 
may  be  made  by  the  following  recipe : — 

4  pecks  of  white  finish,  or  white  coating. 

4  pecks  of  beach  or  other  fine  sharp  sand. 

4  pecks  of  ground  plaster. 

4  pounds  of  lampblack. 

4  gallons  of  alcohol  or  good  whiskey. 

This  quantity  will  make  a  mixture  sufiicient  to 
cover  twenty  square  yards  of  surface.  A  little 
flour  of  emery  will  prevent  the  mixture  from  '^set- 
ting" immediately,  thus  giving  time  to  put  it  on  the 
wall  with  the  necessary  care.    If  emery  be  not  used. 


SCHOOL-FURNITURE.  45 

only  a  small  quantity  of  the  mixture  can  be  put  on 
at  a  time;  and  this  is  perhaps,  on  the  whole,  the  best 
plan. 

The  wall  which  is  intended  to  be  covered  with 
the  black-surface  should  be  plastered  like  the  rest 
of  the  room,  with  the  exception  that  the  black  mix- 
ture takes  the  place  of  the  white  coating  and  is  put 
on  in  the  same  manner.  After  the  black-surface 
is  on  the  wall,  it  must  be  carefully  dampened  and 
rubbed,  in  order  to  fill  up  all  the  pores  and  make 
the  surface  hard  and  smooth.  If  the  old  surface  be 
well  moistened,  a  new  surface,  composed  of  the  same 
mixture,  can  be  applied.  The  slate-surface  now 
'prepared  by  manufacturers  in  Philadelphia,  IsTew 
York,  Boston,  and  other  places,  is  in  some  respects 
superior  to  any  blackboard-surface  known,  except 
the  real  slate.  The  Eeport  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion of  Chicago  for  1862  contains  the  following  re- 
cipe for  making  blackboard-paint:  To  make  one 
gallon  of  the  paint,  take  10  oz.  pulverized  pumice 
stone,  6  oz.  pulverized  rotten-stone,  f  lb.  of  lamp- 
black, and  mix  them  with  alcohol  enough  to  make 
a  thick  paste.  Grind  the  mixture  very  thoroughly 
in  a  paint-mill,  and  then  dissolve  about  14  oz.  of 
shellac  in  the  remainder  of  the  gallon  of  alcohol. 
Stir  the  whole  together,  and  the  paint  is  ready  for 
use.  This  paint,  if  well  applied,  will  make  a  good 
surface. 

A  frame  should  be  placed  around  all  blackboards, 
with  a  trough  at  the  under  side  to  catch  the  dust. 
Hooks  should  be  attached  to  them  on  which  to  hang 
pointers  and  rubbers.  Prepared  chalk  and  talc  are 
used  for  blackboard-pencils. 


46      THE  PREPARATION  TOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

4.  Miscellaneous  Articles  op  Furniture. — The 
operations  of  the  school  can  hardly  proceed  with  the 
necessary  regularity  and  system  without  a  clock.  It 
is  a  silent  monitor,  ever  reminding  both  pupils  and 
teacher  that  time  is  passing.  The  constant  lesson 
it  teaches  is,  "Be  ready.'' 

A  little  sweet-toned  bell,  to  be  used  in  calling  out 
and  dismissing  classes,  and,  now  and  then,  to  arrest 
the  attention  of  those  who  are  disturbing  the  order 
of  the  school,  must  be  found  among  the  articles  of 
school-furniture.  If  the  school-house  have  no  belfry, 
the  teacher  must  have  a  large  hand-bell  to  call  the 
pupils  from  the  play-ground. 

A  couple  of  settees  or  a  few  chairs,  for  visitors, 
cannot  well  be  dispensed  with. 

Pointers,  rubbers,  brooms,  mats,  scrapers,  wash- 
basins, buckets,  umbrella-stands,  &c.  need  be  no 
more  than  named. 

Vn.  School-Apparatus. — It  has  not  always  nor 
everywhere  been  considered  necessary  for  the  school 
to  be  furnished  with  apparatus  of  any  kind.  This 
was  a  mistake.  The  teacher  can  be  greatly  aided 
in  his  work  by  having  at  his  command  appropriate 
apparatus.  The  eye  seems  to  be  the  most  open  inlet 
to  the  mind ;  and  when  a  child  sees  a  thing,  it  is 
more  effectually  impressed  upon  his  memory  than 
if  it  had  been  described  to  him  many  times. 

Among  the  articles  of  apparatus  which  should  be 
found  in  all  schools  are  the  following: — a  set  of 
cards  for  teaching  the  Alphabet,  Pronunciation, 
Spelling,  and  Elementary  Reading,  with  a  stand  to 
hang  them  upon;   several  sets  of  Letter-Blocks, 


SCHOOL-APPARATUS.  47 

and  a  chart  of  Elementary  Sounds ;  "Writing-Cliarts; 
cards  for  Drawing,  both  large  and  small,  to  suit 
classes  or  individuals,  and  a  set  of  objects  for 
Drawing;  a  N'umeral  Frame,  and  sets  of  Square  and 
Cube  Eoot  Blocks ;  a  Globe,  a  set  of  Outline  Maps, 
and  a  Tellurian ;  charts  of  History ;  a  case  of  min- 
erals and  curiosities,  a  large  collection  of  objects 
for  Object  Lessons,  some  pictures  and  engravings 
intended  for  the  same  purpose ;  a  Thermometer ;  a 
Dictionary,  a  Gazetteer,  and  a  few  other  well-selected 
books  for  reference  in  the  several  studies.  All  these 
articles  of  apparatus  can  be  obtained  or  made  with- 
out much  difficulty  or  expense.  Ko  Common  School 
should  be  without  them. 

High  Schools,  Academies,  and  Colleges  should  be 
well  provided  with  Philosophical  apparatus,  and  be 
made  rich  in  cabinets,  libraries,  collections  of  maps 
and  charts ;  and  even  paintings  and  statuary  are  not 
out  of  place. 

School-apparatus,  if  well  cared  for,  will  last  a  long- 
time; but  if  roughly  handled,  it  may  be  destroyed 
almost  as  soon  as  procured.  To  keep  it  safe,  it  must 
be  used  carefully  and  skilfully,  and,  when  not  in  use, 
every  article  should  have  its  place  in  the  proper  case 
or  closet,  where  close  doors,  well  locked,  will  keep 
dust,  insects,  and  rude  hands  away  from  it. 

In  our  Common  Schools  the  teacher  should  be 
held  responsible  for  the  safe-keeping  of  the  school- 
apparatus,  as  well  as  for  the  taking  care  of  the 
school-grounds,  school-house,  and  school-furniture. 
The  defacement  and  destruction  of  school-property 
by  the  hands  of  pupils  will  not  occur  under  the 
superintendence  of  a  well-qualified  teacher;  and  one 


48      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

who  neglects  Ms  duty  in  this  respect  should  be  held 
to  a  strict  account  by  his  employers.  For  me,  it  is 
a  sad  sight  to  see  the  enclosure  of  a  school-ground 
broken  down,  the  grounds  themselves  filled  with 
rubbish,  the  walls  of  the  school-house,  both  inside 
and  outside,  covered  with  uncouth  figures,  the  doors 
and  furniture  cut  almost  to  pieces  by  generation 
after  generation  of  ruthless  whittlers,  the  apparatus 
lost  or  out  of  order;  and  in  seeing  such  sights  I 
have  almost  ceased  to  wonder  at  the  hesitation  of 
School-Directors  and  School-Committees  to  improve 
the  school-property.  It  is  for  teachers  to  apply  the 
remedy. 

In  rural  districts,  when  the  school  is  not  in  ses- 
sion, the  apparatus  should  be  removed  to  some 
private  dwelling  where  it  will  be  cared  for,  and  the 
house  itself  should  be  placed  in  charge  of  the 
nearest  neighbor  who  will  guard  the  property  from 
abuse. 

Vlll.  School-Records. — In  discussing  the  subject 
of  School-Eecords,  it  will  be  convenient  to  speak — 

1.  Of  the  Forms  of  School-Records. 

2.  Of  the  Objects  of  School-Records. 

1.  The  Forms  of  School -Records. — School-re- 
cords, to  be  most  useful,  must  be  adapted  to  difterent 
kinds  of  schools,  and  to  schools  under  different  cir- 
cumstances; and  for  this  reason  I  have  doubted 
whether  it  was  best  to  present  any  forms  of  them 
in  this  book.  The  importance  of  the  subject  to 
teachers  and  school-officers  decided  the  question 
in  the  affirmative;  and  it  is  hoped  the  forms  pre- 


SCHOOL-RECORDS.  49 

sented  will  be  valuable  to  some  for  what  they  are, 
and  to  others  for  what  they  suggest.  I  do  not  see 
how  the  work  of  registration  can  be  simplified  and 
made  complete  in  any  school  without  using  the 
whole  set,  or  others  which  answer  the  same  ends. 
Four  forms  will  be  presented, — viz. :  A  Register  of 
Admission  and  Withdrawal,  a  Ebgister  of  At- 
tendance AND  Deportment,  a  Class  Register,  and 
A  Summary  Register.  Of  course,  any  of  the  forms 
can  be  dispensed  with  if  it  is  desirable,  or  a  blank 
book  can  be  readily  ruled  for  the  forms  "A*'  and 
^^D."  Books  for  the  forms  "B"  and  " C"  should  be 
printed,  as  they  require  considerable  ruling,  &c. 

The  form  of  Register  on  page  50  explains  itself. 
It  may  not  always  be  necessary  to  make  a  record 
of  all  the  items  indicated  in  it,  and,  if  not,  any  of 
them  can  be  omitted.  Such  a  Register  will  be  more 
convenient  if  accompanied  with  an  Alphabetical 
Index.  The  Index  can  be  made  by  numbering  the 
names  in  the  Register,  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  and  attaching  the 
same  numbers  to  the  names  arranged  alphabetically. 

The  names  in  the  Register  on  page  61  constitute 
the  roll  of  the  school  which  should  be  called  imme- 
diately after  the  opening  exercises  in  the  morning, 
and  again  just  before  dismissing  in  the  afternoon. 
All  pupils  answering  to  their  names  at  the  morning 
roll-call  may  be  marked  /,  those  answering  to  their 
names  at  the  evening  roll-call  may  be  marked  \, 
and  those  present  at  both  roll-calls  A-  Any  one 
who  is  absent  at  the  calling  of  the  roll  in  the 
morning  should  have  a  .  placed  opposite  his  name, 
which,  if  he  be  present  in  the  evening,  and  be  able 
to  give  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  his  tardiness, 


.50 


THE   PKEPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 


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62  THE    PREPARATION   FOR   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  teacher  can  change  into  a  figure  denoting  his 
partial  presence.  If  no  such  explanation  be  given, 
the  teacher  must,  in  addition,  express  the  fact  by 
giving  him  a  low  mark  in  the  deportment  column. 
If  the  pupil  be  absent  altogether,  he  should  receive 
a  0  in  the  attendance  column,  and  the  space  oppo- 
site his  name  in  the  deportment  column  be  left 
blank,  until  it  is  seen  whether  he  will  bring  a  satis- 
factory excuse  for  his  absence;  when,  if  so,  he 
should  receive  the  same  number  as  if  present,  and 
if  not,  a  0.  The  deportment  should  be  marked  at 
the  evening  roll-call.  When  several  teachers  are 
engaged  in  the  same  school,  it  is  their  duty  to  report 
promptly  to  the  Principal  all  improper  conduct 
which  they  may  have  noticed,  in  order  that  it  may 
be  noted  at  the  proper  time  in  the  Register.  Ha- 
bitual tardiness,  repeated  truancy,  and  incorrigible 
bad  conduct,  should  be  punished  by  dismission  from 
school. 

The  most  convenient  scale  of  marks  which  I  have 
been  able  to  find  is  the  following: — 5,  4,  3,  2, 1,  0, 
meaning,  respectively,  very  good,  good,  middling,  rather 
bad,  bad,  and  very  bad;  or,  as  applied  to  attendance 
and  study,  the  last  three  degrees  should  read,  rather 
poor,  poor,  and  very  poor.  By  very  good  attendance, 
very  good  deportment,  and  very  good  study,  a  pupil 
should  receive  the  number  5  for  each,  daily;  which, 
for  a  week,  would  be  25  for  each,  and  for  a  month, 
100  for  each.  This  is  the  highest  number  attain- 
able. As  regards  attendance,  tardiness,  whether 
excused  or  not,  necessitates  a  deduction  from  the 
full  number  accorded  to  punctual  presence ;  and  no 
credit  can  be  given,  in  the  attendance  column,  for 


SCHOOL-KECORDS.  63 

absence,  no  matter  from  what  cause  it  occurs.  As 
regards  deportment,  unexcused  tardiness  should  be 
marked  as  low  as  2  or  3,  unexcused  absence  can  right- 
fully claim  nothing  more  than  a  0,  and  all  other 
conduct  and  deportment  must  be  estimated  fairly 
by  the  teacher  and  marked  accordingly.  The  sum 
of  the  numbers  attained  by  each  pupil  for  the  month 
is  designed  to  be  placed  in  the  last  column  of  the 
Register  of  Attendance  and  Deportment,  for  easy 
transfer  to  the  Summary  Register. 

The  Class-Register  is  designed  to  record  the  names 
of  the  pupils  in  the  several  classes  of  a  school,  and 
to  mark  the  degrees  of  excellence  in  their  recita- 
tions. As  many  Class-Registers  will  be  needed  as 
there  are  teachers  in  a  school.  The  same  figures 
are  used  as  in  the  Register  of  Attendance  and  Deport- 
ment, and  with  the  same  significance.  The  space 
opposite  the  name  of  a  pupil  who  is  absent  from  any 
cause  is  left  blank,  as  the  question  of  the  absence 
itself  is  to  be  settled  under  the  head  of  deportment ; 
and  all  others  are  to  be  carefully  marked  according 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  lesson  which  they  evince. 
The  sum  of  the  numbers  received  for  all  the  days 
of  a  week  will  give  the  number  for  that  week,  and 
the  sum  of  the  numbers  received  for  four  weeks 
will  give  the  number  for  a  month.  The  highest 
number  for  a  month,  as  in  attendance  and  deport- 
ment, is  100. 

In  the  column  designated  Relative  Standing^  it  is  in- 
tended to  mark  the  members  of  the  class,  first^  second^ 
thirds  fourth^  ffth^  &c.,  according  to  their  relative 
scholarship. 

The  column  headed  Marks  of  Transfer  is  designed 


64 


THE    PEEPARATION   FOR   THE    SCHOOL. 


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SCHOOL-EECORDS.  55 

to  aid  tlie  school-authorities,  especially  when  the 
schools  are  graded,  in  making  promotions  from  a 
lower  class  to  a  higher  one,  or  from  one  grade  to 
another.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  the  teacher  of  a  class, 
a  pupil  should  remain  where  he  is,  the  space  in  this 
column  opposite  his  name  should  remain  a  blank; 
but  if  he  thinks  he  should  be  advanced,  he  fills  it 
with  a  +j  or  if  placed  in  a  lower  class,  with  a  — . 

At  the  end  of  every  month,  the  teacher  should 
add  together  the  numbers  each  pupil  has  received 
in  his  different  studies,  and  divide  their  sum  by  the 
number  of  studies:  the  quotient  will  be  his  general 
number  for  study ^  which  should  be  transferred  to  the 
Summary  Register.  Where  several  teachers  are 
engaged  in  the  same  school,  each  teacher  monthly 
should  arrange  the  members  of  his  several  classes 
alphabetically,  place  opposite  each  name  the  proper 
number,  so  far  as  attainable  from  the  data  in  his 
possession,  and  hand  his  report  to  the  Principal,  to 
be  modified  by  the  reports  of  the  other  teachers  and 
then  transferred  to  the  Summary  Register. 

In  this  Register  the  names  of  the  pupils  ought  to 
be  arranged  alphabetically.  The  Summary  Register 
itself,  when  carefully  filled  up,  will  be  a  synopsis  of 
all  that  is  done  in  the  school. 

The  numbers  for  the  term  are  obtained  by 
adding  together  the  several  numbers  for  the  differ- 
ent months  contained  in  it.  He  who  has  the  high- 
est number  for  attendance  will  stand  first  in  this 
respect;  and  so  in  regard  to  deportment  and 
study. 

2.  The  Objects  of  School-Records. — Some  of 
the  objects  of  school-records  might  be  inferred  from 

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56 


PREPARATION   FOR    THE    SCHOOL. 


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SCHOOL-RECORDS.  67 

the  forms  already  presented ;  but  it  will  be  proper 
to  make  a  more  dejB.nite  statement  of  tliem. 

To  aid  the  Teacher  in  his  Work. — The  great  economist 
of  time  and  labor  is  system.  A  loose  organization 
is  never  an  effective  one,  in  a  factory,  in  an  army, 
or  in  a  school.  With  such  a  set  of  school-records 
as  has  just  been  described,  the  little  trouble  it  takes 
to  keep  them  will  be  ten  times  more  than  compen- 
sated for  l:^y  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  school,  and 
the  pleasure  that  arises  from  contemplating  the 
results  of  nicely  adjusted  machinery.  Without 
them,  the  teacher's  rewards  and  punishments,  praises 
and  rebukes,  promotions  and  degradations,  must 
necessarily  be  ofttimes  inconsiderately  made.  He 
will  have  no  substantial  foundation  upon  which  to 
base  his  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  school. 

To  give  Information  to  Parents  and  School-Officers, — 
The  Registers,  if  carefully  kept,  will  contain  an 
abstract  of  the  history  of  the  school,  and  of  each 
pupil  in  it.  It  can  there  be  learned  when  every 
pupil  entered  school,  how  long  he  continued  his 
attendance,  and  why  he  withdrew ;  how  many  days 
he  was  absent  or  tardy,  how  well  he  conducted  him- 
self, what  branches  he  studied,  and  what  progress 
he  made  in  them ;  and  these  and  other  things 
recorded  in  the  Registers  are  just  the  information 
parents  and  school-officers  desire  most  to  obtain. 
Besides,  the  Registers  furnish  the  means  of  com- 
paring one  school  with  another,  in  the  same  district, 
and  the  schools  of  one  year  with  those  of  preceding 
years. 

To  furnish  Educational  Statistics. — Our  educational 
statistics  are  extremely  unreliable,  and  inferences 


63      THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  SCHOOL. 

based  upon  them  are,  therefore,  apt  to  be  fallacious. 
This  arises  from  imperfect  school-records  or  an 
imperfect  manner  of  keeping  them.  Our  State  au- 
thorities whose  duty  it  is  to  make  school-laws  and 
administer  them  need  accurate  information  con- 
cerning the  condition  of  the  schools ;  and  to  furnish 
such  information  is  one  of  the  objects  of  school- 
records.  They  ought  to  furnish  particularly,  every 
year,  the  whole  number  of  children  of  school-age 
in  each  school-district,  the  whole  number  that 
attended  each  school,  the  average  number  that 
attended  each  school,  the  expense  per  scholar,  the 
number  of  grades  into  which  the  schools  are  divided 
and  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  grade,  and  what 
branches  are  studied  in  each  school  and  each  grade ; 
and,  although  all  of  these  statistics  cannot  be  gathered 
wholly  from  the  school-records,  they  cannot  be  ob- 
tained without  these  records. 

Questions  relating  to  the  higher  interests  of  edu- 
cation, too,  can  only  be  determined  at  last  by  a 
resort  to  the  unequivocal  truths  unfolded  by  sta- 
tistics :  I  mean  questions  concerning  the  relations 
of  education  to  the  value  of  property,  to  labor,  to 
crime,  to  government,  and  to  religion.  The  simple 
facts  recorded  by  careful  teachers  may  one  day  solve 
the  great  problem  of  human  civilization. 

To  exert  a  beneficial  Influence  upon  the  Pupils. — I 
speak  from  a  large  experience  when  I  say  that 
school-records  judiciously  used  are  among  the  most 
potent  means  open  to  the  teacher  of  securing  re- 
gular attendance,  correct  deportment,  and  attention 
to  study  among  the  pupils  in  a  school.  Many  do 
not  regard  a  rebuke  that  passes   away  with  the 


SCHOOL-RECOEDS.  59 

utterance  of  it,  or  a  pnnisliment  that  will  be  soon 
forgotten,  who  will  be  averse  to  seeing  their  dere- 
lictions of  duty  placed  permanently  upon  a  record. 
In  the  system  of  school-records  previously  explained, 
it  will  be  observed  that  care  is  taken  to  sum  up  the 
numbers  obtained  by  each  pupil  for  each  week,  each 
month,  and  each  term,  that  every  pupil  may  observe 
what  kind  of  a  history  of  himself  there  is  being 
recorded.  The  teacher  will  do  well  sometimes  to 
read  the  numbers  for  a  month,  or  the  relative  stand- 
ing of  the  members  in  a  class ;  or  he  may  send 
abstracts  of  each  pupil's  record  in  attendance,  de- 
portment, scholarship,  and  average  standing,  to  his 
parents. 

While  school-records  may  exert  all  the  beneficial 
influence  upon  the  pupils  in  a  school  that  is  claimed 
in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  an  injudicious  teacher 
may  do  his  school  more  harm  than  good  by  using 
them  in  the  way  suggested ;  and  even  in  the  hands 
of  one  who  is  most  careful,  there  is  danger  that  the 
nobler  motives  to  study,  such  as  the  love  of  truth 
and  the  conviction  of  duty,  will  be  subordinated  to 
a  desire  for  honor,  or  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  struggle 
for  success.  If  properly  used,  however,  school- 
records  will  always  prove  a  valuable  auxiliary  in 
the  management  of  a  school. 


9* 


CHAPTER   n. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

The  organization  of  the  scliool  is  tlie  part  of 
school-economy  which  treats  of  the  adjustment  of 
the  school-machinery,  the  assignment  of  positions 
and  duties  to  pupils,  and  the  adoption  of  regulations 
necessary  to  control  the  school-operations.  A  good 
school-organization  enables  the  teacher  to  do  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  in  the  least  amount  of  time, 
and  to  do  it  most  efficiently;  it  makes  the  govern- 
ment of  the  school  more  easy  and  more  effectual ; 
and  it  places  pupils  in  circumstances  most  favorable 
to  their  advancement  in  learning. 

In  the  discussion  that  is  to  follow,  chief  reference 
will  be  had  to  the  organization  of  Common  un- 
graded schools ;  but,  as  occasion  offers,  hints  will 
be  given  as  to  the  manner  of  organizing  other  kinds 
of  schools. 

The  subject  can  be  more  conveniently  treated  of 
in  two  sections,  as  follows : — 

I.  The  Temporary  Organization  of  the  School. 
II.  The  Permanent  Organization  of  the  School. 

I.  The  Temporary  Organization  of  the  School. 

— The  most  skilful  teacher,  in  taking  charge  of  a  new 
school,  will  be  unable  to  foresee  all  the  circum- 
stances that  may  tend  to  modify  the  arrangements 

60 


THE   TEMPORARY   ORGANIZATIOISr.  61 

which  ought  to  be  made  for  its  w ell- working ;  and 
this  creates  a  necessity  of  a  temporary  organization, 
to  last  until  experience  furnishes  data  for  making 
it  permanent.  As  the  success  of  such  an  organiza- 
tion will  depend  upon  the  principles  involved  in  its 
formation,  some  suggestions  respecting  them  are 
deemed  appropriate. 

It  is  important  to  make  a  good  beginning  in  teach- 
ing. If  the  teacher  exhibit  want  of  skill  the  first 
day  in  school,  it  may  create  a  prejudice  against  him 
in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  that  cannot  for  a  long 
time  be  removed.  A  teacher  can  hardly  be  placed 
in  a  more  awkward  position  than  to  have  many  in- 
quisitive, sharp-eyed  children  gazing  at  him,  and 
not  know  what  to  do  with  them.  Many  children 
are  good  judges  of  character.  Their  quick  instincts 
soon  inform  them  whether  their  teachers  possess 
the  necessary  qualifications  for  their  position.  They 
hasten  to  school  the  first  day,  watch  eagerly  every 
word  and  motion  of  the  new  teacher,  form  an  esti- 
mate of  his  character  and  ability,  and  hurry  home 
to  relate  their  impressions  of  him.  They  are  good 
critics,  too  ;  and  that  teacher  will  be  fortunate  with 
respect  to  whom,  on  this  first  day  of  school,  their 
criticisms  are  favorable. 

System  in  any  kind  of  business  is  necessary  to 
success.  A  captain  could  not  command  a  vessel, 
a  superintendent  manage  a  factory,  or  a  general 
marshal  an  army,  without  a  systematic  plan  of 
operations.  The  same  truth  applies  to  the  organi- 
zation of  a  school.  Teachers  have  commenced  the 
work  of  teaching  w^ithout  knowing  what  to  do  or 
how  to  do  it;  but,  although  practice  made  some 


62  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

skilful,  it  was  always  at  the  expense  of  the  best 
interests  of  their  pupils,  while  others  met  with  such 
poor  success,  and  were  so  conscious  of  it,  that  they 
took  the  earliest  opportunity  to  escape  from  a  posi- 
tion which,  with  more  preparation,  they  might  have 
adorned. 

It  is  generally  a  good  plan  for  a  teacher  to  visit  a 
neighborhood  in  which  he  is  unacquainted  before 
taking  charge  of  a  school  in  it.  'No  necessity  will 
exist  for  visiting  all  the  patrons  of  the  school,  as  the 
most  essential  information  can  be  had  from  such 
school-officers  as  may  live  in  the  district,  or  from 
those  citizens  who  take  the  deepest  interest  in  the 
school. 

The  information  most  necessary  to  the  teacher  in 
organizing  his  school  will  relate — 

First,  to  the  views  of  the  neighborhood  respecting 
schools.  —  The  people  of  different  neighborhoods 
differ  in  their  views  of  education  and  the  methods 
of  obtaining  it,  as  they  do  with  respect  to  other 
things ;  and,  whether  these  views  be  enlightened  and 
liberal  or  otherwise,  it  is  very  important  that  the 
teacher  should  be  acquainted  with  them.  It  is  not 
meant  that  a  teacher  should  always  conform  to  the 
wishes  of  his  patrons  in  adjusting  the  affairs  of  his 
school,  for  by  pursuing  a  different  course  he  can 
frequently  convince  them  of  their  error;  but  he 
should  always  treat  these  views  with  becoming 
deference,  and  to  do  so  he  must  know  what  they  are. 
Young  teachers  often  lose  much  by  their  injudicious 
disregard  of  public  opinion.  Eeforms  in  school 
affairs,  as  well  as  in  all  else,  can  only  become  per- 
manently established  by  being  made  gradually. 


THE   TBMPOKARY   ORGANIZATION.  63 

Second,  to  the  methods  of  managing  the  school  and  im- 
parting  instruction  pursued,  by  his  predecessor, — Not  that 
these  should  be  closely  imitated  on  the  one  hand, 
or  severely  criticized  on  the  other;  but  the  teacher 
should  acquaint  himself  with  them  as  thoroughly  as 
his  opportunities  will  permit,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  safe  connection  between  the  instruction 
the  pupils  have  received  and  that  which  he  intends 
to  impart  to  them,  and  to  avoid  a  violent  transition 
from  one  mode  of  governing  to  another.  This  in- 
formation can  perhaps  be  better  obtained  from  some 
intelligent  friend  of  education  in  the  neighborhood 
than  from  any  other  source,  though  many  facts  can 
be  gathered  from  the  pupils.  A  conversation  with 
his  predecessor  would  enable  a  teacher  to  learn 
much,  both  with  respect  to  the  school  and  its 
patrons. 

The  great  object  of  the  teacher's  first  day's  work 
in  school  is  to  make  a  favorable  impression  upon 
the  pupils  by  winning  their  confidence  and  respect. 
To  this  end,  the  teacher  should  be  at  the  school- 
house  early  the  first  morning.  J?he  house  itself 
should  be  pleasantly  arranged,  and  the  teacher 
should  await  the  new-comers.  Busy  hands  in  cot- 
tage, farm-house,  and  mansion,  soon  make  ready 
the  children  of  the  neighborhood,  and,  almost  with- 
out breakfast,  they  hurry  away  to  school,  for  the 
news  has  spread  that  they  are  to  have  a  new  teacher. 
They  come  !  The  teacher  need  have  no  fear  for  the 
first  comers ;  they  will  give  him  little  trouble.  But 
by  ones,  twos,  and  threes  the  children  flock  towards 
the  school,  and  among  them  it  is  not  difiicultto  point 
out  some  who  are  rude  and  rough ;  others,  polished 


64  THE    OEGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

and  polite ;  some,  gay  and  lively;  others,  sliy  and  re- 
served; some,  bold  and  mischievous;  others,  modest 
and  respectful : — in  short,  the  teacher  has  about  him 
a  miniature  world.  He  will  act  wisely  if  he  meet 
them  as  they  come,  talk  with  them,  ask  their  opinions 
respecting  the  arrangement  of  the  furniture,  and 
inquire  of  them  concerning  the  previous  manage- 
ment of  the  school.  Dr.  Franklin  said,  ''It  is  a 
good  way  to  make  your  enemy  your  friend  to  ask 
him  to  do  you  a  favor."  The  teacher  will  find  that 
even  bad  boys,  bent  upon  mischief,  will  be  made 
better  by  consulting  them  or  asking  their  help. 
Besides,  something  may  be  done  in  this  way  to 
awaken  a  feeling  of  school-patriotism.  If  parents 
come  to  the  school  with  their  children,  they  should 
be  welcomed  and  consulted. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  to  some  of  the  pupils  in- 
formally at  what  time  school  will  open :  they  will 
spread  the  information ;  and  precisely  at  the  hour 
named,  order  may  be  readily  secured  by  ringing  a 
small  bell.  The  pupils  will  be  likely  to  take  the 
seats  they  formerly  occupied ;  near  friends  will  seat 
themselves  together;  or,  if  the  desks  are  of  diiferent 
heights,  they  may  arrange  themselves  somewhat 
according  to  size  or  age.  The  selection  of  seats 
will  have  been  generally  made  before  the  opening 
of  the  school.  The  teacher  may  watch  the  choosers, 
and  learn  the  reasons  for  their  choices;  but  he 
should  not  authoritatively  interfere.  K  asked,  he 
may  point  out  suitable  seats,  but  should  make  no 
permanent  arrangements. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  have  taken  their  seats,  a 
teacher  who  understands  the  nature  of  his  work 


THE   TEMPORARY   ORGANIZATION".  65 

will  commence  tlie  organization  of  the  school, 
knowing  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it.  No  position, 
however,  can  be  more  embarrassing  to  one  who  has 
made  no  preparation  for  teaching,  who  has  provided 
no  plan  of  operations,  than  to  have  a  houseful  of 
children  before  him,  looking  at  him,  criticizing  every 
movement  he  makes,  and  not  know  how  to  proceed 
with  his  work.  What  seems  most  necessary  to  be 
done  first,  is  to  make  some  needful  general  regula- 
tions. This  course  is  best,  because  it  will  be  calcu- 
lated to  prevent  the  formation  of  bad  habits  which 
subsequent  effort  may  not  easily  correct,  and  also 
habituate  the  pupils  at  the  start  to  conform  to  a 
system.  Loose  arrangement  in  the  beginning  will 
eventually  prove  a  fruitful  source  of  trouble. 

The  regulations  thus  instituted  should  be  tern- 
jporary^  and  the  pupils  should  so  understand  them. 
Many  of  them,  doubtless,  will  become  permanent, — 
the  more  of  them  the  better;  but,  since  some  of  them 
may  be  changed,  it  is  the  best  policy  to  consider  all 
of  them  as  in  force  only  for  the  present.  Frequent 
changes  in  laws  beget  a  want  of  confidence  in  the 
lawmaker;  and  school-regulations  are  not  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  rule.  I  do  not  know  which  plan 
would  be  productive  of  the  most  evil, — to  adopt  at 
first  a  permanent  set  of  rules  for  the  management  of 
the  school,  or  to  allow  the  pupils  to  do  as  they  please 
without  any  rules  at  all ;  but  I  am  certain  that  both 
will  prove,  in  a  very  large  majority  of  cases,  un- 
satisfactory. Of  course,  this  does  not  apply  to 
schools  whose  objects  are  fixed,  or  w^hose  teachers 
do  not  change. 


66  THE   ORaANIZATION    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

The  most  important  of  these  regulations  will  con- 
cern— 

1.  The  Seating. — It  will  often  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  state  that  the  pupils  may  occupy  the  seats 
they  have  chosen,  or  which  have  been  assigned  to 
them,  for  the  present,  but  that  they  are  not  yet 
theirs  permanently,  and,  if  good  order  requires  it, 
changes  will  be  made.  It  may  be  well  for  him  to 
remark,  further,  that  in  some  schools  pupils  desire  to 
sit  near  together  for  the  purpose  of  talking  or  play- 
ing, and  that,  though  he  hopes  such  may  not  be  the 
case  with  them,  he  thinks  it  best  to  be  prepared  to 
protect  those  who  wish  to  study  from  disturbance  by 
making  arrangements,  without  seeming  to  trespass 
upon  the  rights  of  any,  to  prevent  it. 

2.  The  Times  of  Opening  and  Closing  the 
School.— ^his  information  is  necessary  both  to  the 
pupils  and  their  parents.  Punctuality  can  be  best 
secured  by  being  exact  in  the  beginning. 

3.  The  Hours  of  Recesses  or  Intermissions. — 
These  will  depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  the 
school ;  but  some  hours  should  be  temporarily  fixed 
upon  at  once.  They  can  be  easily  changed  if  it 
become  necessary. 

4.  Leaving  Seats  and  asking  Questions  of  the 
Teacher.  —  The  best  temporary  arrangement,  pro- 
bably, that  can  be  made  in  these  respects,  is  to  require 
every  one  who  wishes  to  leave  his  seat  or  ask  a 
question  of  his  teacher  to  hold  up  his  hand,  and  the 
teacher,  noticing  it,  will  grant  or  withhold  liberty  to 
do  so,  as  he  deems  best. 

5.  "Whispering. — Whispering  is  a  very  difficult 
thing  to  control,  either  under  a  temporary  or  a  per- 


THE   TEMPOEARY   ORGANIZATION.  67 

manent  scliool-organization.  The  practice  I  recom- 
mend is  for  the  teacher  to  say  to  the  pupils  that  the 
school-room  must  be  still  in  order  to  study  and  recite 
well,  that  low  talking  is  apt  to  become  loud,  and 
that  those  who  talk  much  will  most  likely  waste 
time  by  it ;  but  for  him  then  to  add  that,  since  it 
happens  sometimes  that  one  pupil  may  have  a  proper 
communication  to  make  to  another,  or  a  proper 
question  to  ask  him,  the  privilege  of  whispering  will 
be  allowed,  provided  it  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to 
disturb  no  one.  Such  a  regulation  will  be  satisfac- 
tory to  pupils,  and  no  opposition  will  be  manifested 
to  the  additional  provision  that,  in  case  whispering 
become  a  source  of  disturbance  in  the  school,  it 
will  be  prohibited.  This  plan  will  enable  the  teacher 
when  he  comes  to  prohibit  whispering  entirely — 
and  this  will  be  found  in  most  schools  to  be  the  best 
policy — to  throw  the  responsibility  upon  the  pupils, 
where  it  justly  belongs,  instead  of  seeming  to  act  in 
an  arbitrary  manner.  I  know  no  better  plan  than 
this ;  and  some  plan  should  be  adopted  the  first  day. 
6.  General  Deportment. — A  detailed  system  of 
school-rules  enforced  the  first  day  will  not  affect 
pupils  favorably.  They  may  not  be  well  adapted  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  school,  and  thus  may  seem 
to  imply  a  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and 
the  pupils,  unable  to  appreciate  their  necessity,  will 
consider  them  arbitrary.  The  most  effective  rules 
relating  to  deportment  are  those  which  are  forced 
upon  the  teacher  by  the  circumstances  of  the  school 
and  in  full  view  of  the  pupils.  Such  rules  can  be 
justified  by  what  has  happened,  not  by  what  might 
happen      On  the  first  day,  therefore,  I  recommend 


68  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  making  of  but  one  rule  in  reference  to  deport- 
ment,— ''Do  right,''  This  rule  embraces  all  cases,  and 
the  appeal  for  its  justice  is  made  directly  to  con- 
science. 

7.  Work. — It  will  be  well  to  assign  work  at  once, 
more  for  the  sake  of  giving  the  pupils  something  to 
do,  than  for  the  sake  of  what  will  be  done  by  them. 
In  graded  schools,  when  teachers  know  what  studies 
are  to  be  pursued,  and  where  the  lessons  are  to  be 
commenced,'  no  delay  for  the  purpose  of  ascertain- 
ing these  things  will  be  necessary ;  but  it  will  fre- 
quently happen  that  a  teacher  cannot  know  how  to 
form  his  classes,  what  branches  are  to  be  studied, 
nor  at  w^hat  points  the  several  studies  should  be 
commenced,  without  special  inquiry  and  examina- 
tion. Such  inquiries  and  examinations  require  some 
time ;  and,  while  the  teacher  is  engaged  with  them, 
how  are  the  pupils  to  be  employed  ?  Miscellaneous 
lessons,  which  are  reviews  of  what  they  have  pre- 
viously studied  or  which  furnish  good  tests  of  their 
present  knowledge,  may  be  assigned ;  but  perhaps 
it  is  just  as  well  to  ask  all  to  prepare  the  next 
lessons  in  their  several  studies  to  those  they  pre- 
viously studied  when  last  at  school.  All  these 
arrangements  need  require  but  a  few  moments  of 
time ;  and  while  the  pupils  commence  their  work, 
knowing  what  is  expected  of  them,  the  teacher  can 
take  pencil  and  paper,  and  pass  around  among 
them,  taking  down  their  names,  ascertaining  whether 
they  have  complied  with  the  conditions  of  admission, 
and,  if  so,  the  kind  of  books  they  have,  the  branches 
they  have  pursued  in  the  past,  and  those  they  desire 
to  engage  in   at  the  present.     This  done,  a  short 


THE    TEMPORARY    ORGANIZATION.  69 

time  will  suffice  to  make  a  temporaiy  arrangement 
of  classes,  and  to  commence  recitations.  The  even- 
ing of  his  first  day  in  school  the  teacher  can  most 
profitably  spend  in  registering  the  names  of  his 
pupils,  and  adapting  his  regulations  to  the  circum- 
stances of  his  school  as"  ascertained  from  the  expe- 
rience of  the  day. 

The  pupils  must  recite  the  first  day  more  in  groups 
than  in  classes ;  and  the  recitations  must  be  general 
in  their  character,  and  conducted  in  reference  to  the 
end  of  obtaining  exact  information  in  regard  to  the 
attainments  the  pupils  have  made  in  the  several 
branches  they  have  previously  studied.  Several 
days  must  sometimes  be  spent  in  these  experimental 
recitations  or  examinations,  before  the  teacher  can 
bring  order  out  of  the  confusion,  by  forming  classes 
and  commencing  the  new  instruction  at  the  point 
where  the  knowledge  of  his  pupils  ends. 

In  managing  the  school  and  conducting  the  recita- 
tions under  his  temporary  organization,  the  teacher 
will  need  to  call  into  requisition  all  his  tact  and 
talent.  Many  can  keep  machinery  in  operation 
which  they  could  not  contrive ;  and  young  teachers 
will  find  it  more  difficult  to  organize  a  school  than 
to  manage  it  when  organized.  Several  days,  and 
m  some  cases  a  week,  may  be  allowed  to  elapse  before 
the  teacher  should  venture  to  give  his  pupils  per- 
manent seats,  make  permanent  regulations  for  the 
school,  or  arrange  a  permanent  programme  of  study 
and  recitation.  Some  approach,  however,  may  be 
made  daily  to  this  desirable  end. 


70  THE    ORaANIZATION   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

II.  The  Permanent  Organization  of  the  School. 

— 1^0  organization  of  a  scliooi,  however  well  con- 
sidered, can  be  permanent  in  tlie  common  accepta- 
tion of  the  word.  A  teacher  can  never  foresee  all 
the  elements  which  should  enter  into  the  calculation 
in  the  arrangement  of  his  plans.  The  word  permanent^ 
then,  as  used  here,  must  not  be  understood  to  mean 
unalterably  fixed,  but  only  that  degree  of  perma- 
nency possible  under  the  circumstances. 

As  no  professional  skill  can  devise  plans  that  will 
be  adapted  to  all  kinds  and  grades  of  schools,  what 
is  intended  to  be  said  will  have  reference  to  the 
leading  principles  which  must  be  observed  in  per- 
manently organizing  a  school ;  and  each  teacher  is 
expected  to  possess  the  ingenuity  necessary  to  apply 
them  so  as  to  meet  the  peculiar  requirements  of  the 
state  of  things  by  which  he  is  surrounded. 

In  organizing  a  school  permanently,  the  teacher 
must  make — 

1.  General  Provisions  in  Eegard  to  Study. 

2.  General  Provisions  in  Eegard  to  Order. 

1.  Provisions  relating  to  Study. — Provisions 
relating  to  study  must  be  made  with  reference  to 
the  following  circumstances : — 

1st.   The  Branches  to  be  taught  in  the  School. 

2d.    The  Branches  to  be  studied  by  each  Pupil. 

3d.    The  Text-Books  to  be  used. 

4th.  The  Formation  of  the  Pupils  into  Classes. 

5th.  The  Distribution  of  the  Classes  among  the 
Teachers. 

6th.  The  Arrangement  of  Times  for  Study  and  Peci- 
iation. 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  71 

1st.  The  Branches  to  he  taught  in  the  School. — In  a  pre- 
ceding section,  some  remarks  were  made  with  respect 
to  a  general  course  of  study  for  schools;  here  it  is 
proposed  to  make  some  suggestions  concerning  the 
selection  of  branches  of  learning  to  be  taught  in  a 
particular  school.  In  making  such  a  selection,  the 
teacher  must  regard  the  object  of  the  school,  its 
grade,  the  requirements  of  school-officers,  and  his 
own  time  and  ability. 

If  the  object  of  the  school  be  a  special  one,  its 
course  of  study  must  be  arranged  with  reference  to 
a  special  end.  Some  schools  aim  to  prepare  pupils 
for  higher  schools,  and  others  have  in  view  prepara- 
tion for  a  particular  kind  of  business :  all  such  must 
so  direct  the  studies  of  their  pupils  as  to  secure  most 
effectually  their  special  object.  If  a  general  educa- 
tion is  contemplated,  such  an  arrangement  of  studies 
must  be  made  as  will  be  best  calculated  to  attain  it. 
A  general  education  has  four  objects:  to  obtain 
truth,  to  promote  discipline,  to  elevate  ideals,  and  to 
impart  skill.  Truth  is  desirable  for  its  own  sake ; 
and  education  strengthens  the  body  and  the  mind, 
expands  our  aspirations,  and  renders  men  more  fit  to 
perform  the  work  of  life.  All  of  these  objects  must 
be  considered  in  arranging  a  course  of  study ;  and, 
when  well  understood,  there  is  no  antagonism  in  the 
efforts  necessary  to  be  made  for  their  attainment.  A 
teacher  may  be  making  his  pupils  active  business- 
men and  good  citizens  at  the  same  time  that  he  is 
enriching  their  minds  with  stores  of  the  noblest 
truth,  holding  up  for  their  contemplation  the  purest 
ideals  of  perfection,  and  enlarging  their  powers  by 
free,  strength-giving  exercise.     With  these  objects 


il  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

in  view,  the  teacher  must  select  such  studies,  subject 
to  other  conditions,  as  will  be  best  calculated  to 
promote  them.  "What  it  is  thought  these  should  be 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  has  already 
been  stated;  what  they  must  be  under  particular 
circumstances,  can  only  be  left  to  the  teacher's  judg- 
ment. 

In  an  ungraded  school,  the  course  of  study  is 
completed  within  itself;  but  in  a  system  of  graded 
schools,  each  school  or  grade  has  its  particular  stu- 
dies, the  general  course  of  study  extending  through 
all  the  grades  of  the  system.  The  studies  of  a  par- 
ticular school  in  such  a  system,  depending  upon  its 
grade,  can  only  be  determined  in  connection  with 
the  studies  of  the  other  schools  of  the  system  of 
which  it  is  a  part. 

Sometimes  school-officers.  Directors  or  Control- 
lers, assume  the  duty  of  arranging  courses  of  study 
for  the  schools  under  their  charge;  but,  if  so,  they 
must  do  it  subject  to  the  general  principles  already 
indicated  for  the  guidance  of  the  teacher.  Such 
arrangements  are  binding  upon  teachers  who  remain 
in  the  employ  of  those  who  make  them 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  teacher  can  find 
time,  or  that  he  will  possess  the  ability,  to  teach  every 
thing;  and  this  may  have  something  to  do  in  fixing 
upon  the  studies  for  a  school.  It  is  the  teacher's 
duty  to  spend  his  school-time  most  profitably  for  the 
whole  school.  If  he  has  a  large  school  and  devotes 
much  time  to  a  few  pupils  who  are  engaged  in  the 
study  of  some  special  branch  of  learning,  he  may  do 
injustice  to  other  members  of  the  school.  It  is  not 
meant  by  this  that  he  ought  not  to  devote  more  time 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  73 

to  pupils  in  the  higher  classes  than  to  those  in  the 
lower  classes,  for  he  may  do  this  without  encroach- 
ing upon  the  rights  of  any,  since  the  members  of 
the  lower  classes  will  soon  enter  the  higher  ones ; 
but  it  is  meant  that  the  teacher's  time  during  school- 
hours  is  not  his  own,  and  each  pupil  is  entitled  to  a 
proper  share  of  attention;  and  no  studies  should 
be  introduced  into  a  school  that  will  necessitate  a 
violation  of  this  principle.  It  seems  scarcely  worth 
while  to  add  that  a  teacher  ought  not  to  undertake 
to  teach  to  others  what  he  does  not  know  himself. 
By  hard  study  a  teacher  may  prepare  lessons  in 
advance  of  a  class;  but  the  experiment  is  a  dan- 
gerous one. 

2d.  The  Branches  to  be  studied  by  each  Pupil — Two 
modes  of  fixing  the  number  and  kind  of  studies  to 
be  pursued  by  each  pupil  in  a  school  are  practised 
in  institutions  of  learning.  By  the  first,  a  general 
course  and  a  general  order  of  studies  are  prearranged, 
each  pupil  is  examined  upon  entering,  and  such  stu- 
dies are  assigned  him  as  it  is  deemed  best  he  should 
acquaint  himself  with  in  the  beginning,  and  such 
an  order  is  followed  in  his  course  as  his  progress 
may  justify.  By  the  second,  the  course  and  order 
of  studies  are  determined  by  the  teacher's  judgment 
formed  from  the  circumstances  that  surround  him, 
the  interests  of  the  school,  the  wishes  of  parents, 
and  the  tastes  or  talents  of  pupils.  These  modes 
differ  in  this :  in  the  former,  the  controlling  con- 
sideration is  the  nature  of  the  branches  to  be  taught, 
and  the  general  ends  of  study ;  while  in  the  latter, 
more  influence  is  allowed  to  particular  circum- 
stances.    When  pupils  enjoy  the  liberty  of  either 


74  THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

attending  a  school  or  not,  the  scliool-autliorities 
have  an  undoubted  right  to  adopt  a  course  of  study 
and  compel  all  members  of  the  school  to  pursue  it ; 
and  this  plan  is  more  systematic,  and  probably,  on 
the  whole,  in  institutions  designed  to  impart  a  gene- 
ral education,  is  productive  of  more  good  than  any 
other.  'No  complete  gradation  of  schools  or  arrange- 
ment of  classes  would  be  possible  without  it.  Many 
schools  have  been  crippled  in  their  working  by  an 
effort  to  conform  to  individual  wants.  Still,  the 
particular  interests  of  a  school,  the  wishes  of 
parents,  and  the  tastes  or  talents  of  pupils,  cannot 
be  wholly  overlooked;  and  the  question  becomes  an 
important  one  as  to  the  influence  which  ought  to 
be  allowed  to  them. 

It  can  easily  be  conceived  that  a  school  with  a 
fixed  course  of  study  may  find  that  its  interest  de- 
mands at  times  a  departure  from  it.  It  may  be  done 
to  take  advantage  of  some  unforeseen  circumstance 
or  to  accomplish  some  special  end,  to  accommodate 
the  course  of  study  to  the  length  of  time  pupils  can 
attend  school,  or  to  the  nature  or  amount  of  their 
home-work;  but  in  so  doing  the  teacher  must  be 
careful  that  the  school  as  a  whole  suff'ers  no  detriment. 

Parents  have  a  deep  interest  in  their  children,  and 
some  deference  should  be  paid  to  their  wishes  re- 
specting the  branches  of  study  which  they  are 
made  to  pursue.  A  school  should  remove  children 
as  little  as  possible  from  the  influences  of  home, 
and,  as  school-authorities  derive  all  their  powers 
primarily  from  parents,  their  wishes  should  never  be 
disregarded  unless  the  general  good  demands  it. 
No  parent,  however,  can  reasonably  expect  that  hia 


THE   PEEMANENT    OEGANIZATION.  70 

child  should  receive  more  than  a  just  proportion  of 
the  teacher's  attention,  or  that  the  general  interest 
of  the  school  should  be  sacrificed  to  secure  for  him 
some  special  favor.  If  a  parent  insist  that  his  child 
should  study  some  branch  of  learning  for  which  he 
is  found  not  to  be  prepared,  his  demand  ought  to  be 
kindly  but  firmly  refused ;  but  if  he  is  prepared, 
and  the  general  good  of  the  school  suff*er  no  detri- 
ment from  it,  the  parent's  wish  should  be  complied 
with,  though  the  teacher  may  think  some  other 
branch  more  suitable. 

Tastes  in  regard  to  particular  studies  are  often 
the  effect  of  habit.  Most  pupils  may  be  brought  to 
like  any  branch  of  learning;  and  there  are  branches 
upon  the  study  of  which  it  is  worth  while  for  the 
teacher  to  insist,  even  against  his  pupil's  antipathies. 
But  pupils  study  more  devotedly,  make  better  pro- 
gress, are  more  contented,  when  engaged  in  learning 
those  branches  for  which  they  have  a  taste.  Talents 
are  not  alike  in  kind  or  quality  as  exhibited  by  the 
human  family.  All  persons  cannot  succeed  in  all 
things  equally  well;  and  it  is  right  that  each  should 
have  a  chance  to  succeed  in  that  in  which  he  may 
succeed  the  best.  The  teacher  may,  therefore,  when 
the  general  good  of  the  school  permits  it,  allow  in- 
dividual pupils  to  exercise  their  peculiar  tastes  in 
the  selection  of  studies,  or  to  use  their  peculiar 
talents  in  the  acquirement  of  some  special  science 
or  art.  Not  that  he  can  heed  every  individual  whim 
with  regard  to  study ;  but  he  may  watch  the  deve- 
lopment of  real  tastes  and  real  talents  for  particular 
lines  of  pursuit,  and  give  them  such  encouragement 
as  circumstances  permit.     In  the  economy  of  mind, 


76  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

something  is  lost  to  the  world  by  a  fixed  routine  of 
study. 

In  arranging  studies  for  individuals,  care  must  be 
taken  to  &k  upon  a  proper  number.  It  is  easy  to 
induce  pupils  to  undertake  too  much,  and  it  engen- 
ders bad  habits  to  allow  them  to  undertake  too  little. 
They  should  engage  in  the  study  of  just  as  many 
branches  as  they  can  study  well,  and  no  more. 
Pupils  now  generally  engage  in  too  many  studies 
at  a  time.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  pupils 
have  on  hand  ten  or  fifteen  branches  in  which  they 
are  required  to  recite  daily  lessons.  This  practice 
defeats  the  end  of  study,  and  should  be  everywhere 
abandoned. 

It  does  not  seem  best  to  confine  a  pupil  to  one 
kind  of  studies.  A  proper  variety  imparts  more 
general  culture,  and  gives  more  zest  to  study.  The 
mind,  too,  becomes  less  easily  fatigued  when  it  can 
change  from  one  study  to  another  than  if  it  is 
engaged  all  the  time  in  the  same  kind  of  work,  as 
weights  can  be  carried  farthest  by  changing  hands. 

Not  only  is  it  important  to  assign  proper  studies 
to  each  pupil,  but  to  select  for  him  the  right  place 
to  commence  his  work.  In  finding  this,  the  teacher 
should  carefully  inquire  as  to  what  knowledge  the 
pupil  already  possesses  concerning  the  subject,  and 
begin  his  instruction  where  that  knowledge  ends. 
No  one  can  ever  thoroughly  master  a  subject  who 
does  not  first  study  its  elements,  and  afterwards 
ascend  to  its  more  difiicult  principles. 

3d.  The  Text-Books  to  be  used. — Text-books  are 
used  in  all  kinds  of  schools,  and  some  arrangement 
must  be  made  respecting  them  before  classification 


THE    PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  77 

can  take  place  or  recitations  commence.     Some  sug 
gestions  will  be  made  with  respect  to  the  use  of  text- 
books, directions  for  selecting  them,  and  the  import- 
ance of  their  being  uniform  in  the  same  schooL 

Text-books  cannot  well  be  dispensed  with.  They 
aid  both  the  teacher  and  pupil.  It  is  freely  ad- 
mitted, however,  that  a  school  might  be  taught 
without  the  use  of  text-books.  Teachers  in  ancient 
times  taught  almost  altogether  by  conversations  and 
lectures ;  but  this  mode  of  teaching  was,  before  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  in  great  part  a 
matter  of  necessity.  At  the  present  day,  in  our 
higher  institutions  of  learning,  lectures  are  delivered 
to  the  several  classes ;  but  in  such  institutions  stu- 
dents are  expected  to  understand  the  subject-mattei 
of  the  text-books  and  to  be  prepared  for  original 
investigations.  It  is  admitted,  likewise,  that  know- 
ledge communicated  from  the  lips  of  a  living  teacher 
has  a  freshness  and  a  vitality  that  no  dead  text-book 
can  give  it.  But,  while  all  this  is  true,  it  is  still 
maintained  that  good  text-books  may  be  used  with 
great  advantage  to  a  school.  They  present  the  ob- 
j  ect-matter  of  a  branch  of  knowledge  in  a  proper  form 
for  study.  If  no  text-books  are  used,  the  teacher 
must  communicate  orally  all  the  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  a  subject,  and  afterwards  the  pupils  must 
write  them  out,  study  and  recite  them ;  and  in  doing 
this  some  discipline  may  be  gained,  but  much  time 
is  lost.  The  worst  result  I  have  known  arise  from 
it  is,  the  misconceptions  to  which  pupils  are  liable 
from  the  necessary  rapidity  of  oral  expression.  An 
exception  must  be  made  in  favor  of  young  pupils : 
with  them  oral  instruction  is  much  more  eftective 


78  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL, 

than  tlie  more  formal  mode  witli  text-books.  Still, 
even  in  their  case  text-books  cannot  be  wholly  dis- 
pensed with.  If  the  object-matter  of  a  study  be 
furnished  in  a  text-book,  pupils  can  carefully  pre- 
pare it,  and  the  time  of  the  recitation  can  be  occu- 
pied in  reciting  what  they  know,  and  in  hearing 
what  additional  matter  the  teacher  may  have  to  pre- 
sent. A  well- written  text-book  has  the  subject  of 
which  it  treats  arranged  in  a  proper  order;  and  this 
is  a  very  important  consideration  in  teaching.  Some 
teachers  who  dispense  with  a  text-book  merely  pre- 
sent a  mass  of  fragments,  a  rude  conglomeration 
of  facts  and  principles.  It  is  better  to  have  a  bad 
system  in  teaching  than  no  system  at  all, — better, 
even,  to  have  the  questions  put  and  answered  in  the 
language  of  the  text-book,  bad  as  that  is,  than  to 
have  the  memory  clogged  with  disconnected  frag- 
ments of  knowledge  without  language  to  make  it 
known  or  power  to  use  it  for  the  accomplishment 
of  any  important  practical  end.  Text-books,  how- 
ever, must  be  used,  not  abused.  A  teacher  should 
know  all  that  is  contained  in  the  text-book,  and 
more.  While  he  may  exact  a  close  study  of  it,  re- 
quiring his  pupils  to  commit  its  definitions  and 
rules,  he  should  merely  make  it  serve  the  purpose 
of  a  text  to  his  own  instruction,  and  be  able  at  any 
time  to  lay  it  down  and  proceed  with  the  recitation 
without  it.  In  this  manner  the  object-matter  of  a 
study  can  be  concisely  and  systematically  presented; 
the  pupil  may  have  before  him,  for  careful  investi- 
gation, correct  definitions,  well-expressed  rules,  exact 
arguments,  apt  illustrations,  and  appropriate  exam- 
ples, and  the  teacher  can  have  a  text  for  such  fur- 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  79 

ther  comment  as  lie  may  deem  necessary.  These 
advantages  are  as  ejffectually  lost  without  the  use  of 
a  text-book  as  by  a  slavish  dependence  upon  one. 

Some  directions  may  aid  in  the  selection  of  text- 
books. A  text-book  should  exhaust  the  subject  of 
which  it  treats,  or  present  a  complete  outline  of  it 
from  the  point  of  view  from  which  it  is  considered. 
Not  that  any  one  book  can  contain  all  that  is  known 
concerning  a  branch  of  knowledge ;  but,  without  at- 
tempting this,  a  text-book  may  present  all  its  leading 
facts  and  principles  arranged  into  a  system.  A  book 
of  science  may  be  a  statement  of  facts,  an  enume- 
ration of  experiments,  a  series  of  speculations,  an 
exposition  of  theories ;  but  a  text-book  is  unlike 
such  a  work,  and  contains  a  systematic  arrangement 
of  the  known  definitions,  axioms,  facts,  and  truths 
of  a  science,  with  such  a  number  of  examples  as 
may  be  deemed  necessary  to  impress  them  upon  the 
mind  of  the  learner.  Ifo  man  can  write  a  good 
text-book  upon  a  subject  until  he  has  looked  all 
through  it  and  about  it  and  has  a  clear  knowledge 
of  the  whole.  A  text-book  is  rather  the  history  of 
a  science  than  an  exposition  of  a  science.  Writers 
of  text-books  should  leave  much  for  the  teacher  to 
add  and  for  the  pupil  to  find  out.  They  should 
present  an  exhaustive  series  of  texts,  and  leave  the 
details  to  be  mainly  supplied  by  teachers  and  books 
of  reference.  Our  text-books  have  converted  a 
large  number  of  teachers  into  mere  machines ;  and 
it  is  time  it  was  understood  that  they  are  not  in- 
tended to  relieve  teachers  from  the  trouble  of  think- 
ing. When  a  branch  of  study  is  treated  of  in  a 
series  of  books,  what  is  here  said  applies  to  the 

9 


80  THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

whole  series,  and  not  to  any  one  of  tlie  books  of 
which  the  series  is  composed. 

Text-books  ought  to  present  a  logical  arrange- 
ment of  the  several  divisions  of  the  subject  upon 
which  they  treat.  This  truth  has  already  been 
stated,  but  its  importance  demands  a  stronger  pre- 
sentation of  it.  Some  of  our  popular  text-books 
are  very  much  at  fault  in  their  arrangement.  Their 
authors  seem  to  have  thrown  the  different  parts  to- 
gether disjointed  and  disconnected,  and  filled  up  the 
hiterstices  with  such  loose  details  as  first  presented 
themselves.  A  proper  arrangement  would  furnish 
a  reason  for  the  place  of  each  division,  chapter,  sec- 
tion, and  paragraph.  A  text-book,  in  fact,  ought  to 
be  a  rigid  piece  of  practical  logic. 

Text-books  should  be  interesting  in  matter.  The 
authors  of  text-books  should  incorporate  into  them 
the  most  important  principles,  the  most  suggestive 
facts,  the  most  striking  phenomena,  that  belong  to 
the  subject  written  upon.  They  should  have  in 
mind  before  them  the  class  of  pupils  for  whom  they 
are  writing,  and  write  as  they  would  talk  to  them. 
With  the  whole  material  of  the  subject  before  them, 
they  should  select  only  that  which  is  most  valuable 
and  most  interesting.  Ifo  temptation  to  appear 
learned,  to  dwell  upon  favorite  theories,  to  use  fine 
language,  should  divert  them  from  the  purpose  of 
presenting  the  most  important  truths  in  the  most 
agreeable  manner.  Nor  is  it  necessary,  to  make  a 
text-book  interesting,  that  every  thing  in  it  should  be 
explained  or  simplified.  A  healthy  mind  always 
feels  the  deepest  interest  in  that  which  it  has 
worked  hardest  to  obtain.     Idle  students  may  be 


THE    PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  81 

found  in  great  numbers ;  but  an  author  of  a  text- 
book should  not  presuppose  them,  lest  he  encourage 
habits  which  he  should  strive  to  prevent. 

Text-books  should  be  appropriate  in  style.  Avoid-  • 
ing  the  extremes  of  the  dry  style  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  florid  style  on  the  other,  text-books  that  are 
not  simply  formal — as  works  on  Mathematics  or 
Grammar — should  be  written  in  a  style  plain  and 
simple.  An  apt  figure  introduced  now  and  then 
may  reveal  some  hidden  beauty,  or  a  single  glance 
of  the  imagination  may  open  up  to  the  astonished 
student  the  glories  of  the  ideal  world ;  but  a  text- 
book full  of  fancy-flights,  however  it  might  intoxi- 
cate its  readers,  could  scarcely  serve  to  instruct 
them.  Students  may  read,  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  text-books,  works  beautified  with  all  the 
refinements  of  thought  and  language,  may  follow 
the  imagination  of  some  Milton  or  Goethe,  some 
Hugh  Miller  or  Louis  Agassiz,  in  its  sublimest 
flights,  and  be  the  better  for  it ;  but  the  works  of 
such  writers  are  seldom  well  suited  for  text-books. 
We  want  clearness,  precision,  and  strength  in  a) 
text-book,  and  all  ornament  should  be  a  subordinate  | 
consideration.  Firm  foundations  and  substantial 
walls  are  wanted  for  a  building,  before  carving, 
gilding,  or  fresco-work  can  adorn  it,  or  painting  or 
statuary  find  a  place  within  its  halls. 

Text-books  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of 
the  class  for  which  they  are  intended.  In  many 
schools  the  text-books  are  too  difl3.cult  for  the  pupils 
who  use  them.  Parents  are  many  times  ambitious 
to  have  their  children  study  branches  of  learning 
with  high-sounding    names   and  use  books   with 


82  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

high-sounding  titles,  and  teacliers  sometimes,  at 
least,  do  little  to  check  this  dangerous  ambition. 
No  plan  could  be  better  calculated  than  this  to 
destroy  all  interest  in  study.  It  imprisons  thought; 
and  the  blank,  impenetrable  darkness,  into  which 
the  pupil  is  compelled  always  to  look,  soon  creates 
despair  in  seeking  light.  A  child  may  learn  what- 
ever he  can  learn;  but  it  is  worse  than  folly  to 
attempt  to  teach  him  what  he  cannot  understand. 
Hence  text-books  should  be  written  and  used 
adapted  to  his  capacity.  One  of  the  most  serious 
errors  in  text-books  is  the  placing  of  the  higher  and 
more  difficult  parts  of  branches  of  learning  in  such 
close  proximity  to  the  elementary  parts.  Quite 
young  pupils  can  learn  the  elements  of  Gramniar  or 
Arithmetic ;  but  when  advanced  beyond  them  they 
soon  begin  to  lose  interest  in  study,  and  conse- 
quently make  little  progress.  The  fault  is  in  the 
text-book,  or  the  teacher  who  follows  it,  and  not  in 
the  children.  They  cannot  be  expected  to  take 
much  interest  in  what  they  are  unable  to  under- 
stand. An  immense  amount  of  time  is  squan- 
dered every  year  in  this  fruitless  labor,  and  tens 
of  thousands  of  promising  children  are  made  to 
contract  thereby  habits  of  idleness,  if  not  of  vice. 
Text-books  for  Primary  Schools  should  contain  the 
elements  of  several  branches  of  learning,  instead 
of  both  the  elements  and  higher  parts  of  one  branch, 
and  text-books  for  advanced  pupils  might  then  omit 
the  elements  altogether. 

A  series  of  text-books  ought  to  be  adopted  in 
every  school,  and  the  use  of  all  other  kinds  should 
be  prohibited.     In  favor  of  such  a  uniformity  of 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  83 

text-books  it  needs  not  that  a  long  argument  be 
presented.  If  not  absolutely  necessary  to  classifi- 
cation, it  aids  very  greatly  that  work;  it  makes 
teaching  more  effective,  and  avoids  that  confusion 
of  definitions  and  rules  which  must  arise  in  a  school 
where  the  books  of  several  authors  upon  the  same 
subject  are  in  use.  The  cost  of  text-books  is  a 
small  loss,  compared  with  the  gain  of  having  them 
uniform. 

4th.  The  Formation  of  the  Pupils  into  Classes, — Two 
principles  are  recognized  in  the  formation  of  classes 
in  our  American  schools.  The  first  requires  all  the 
members  of  a  class  to  study  the  same  branches;  the 
second  permits  pupils  to  recite  difterent  studies  in 
different  classes.  The  classification  of  a  school  ac- 
cording to  the  first  principle  can  be  made  much 
more  complete  than  when  done  according  to  the 
second,  and  the  stimulus  to  exertion  is  much  greater 
in  a  fixed  class  than  it  can  be  when  pupils  recite 
one  subject  in  one  class  and  another  subject  in 
another.  A  teacher  who  adopts  the  second  prin- 
ciple, however,  can  better  accommodate  his  classes 
to  the  unequal  attainments  of  his  pupils,  and, 
probably,  better  satisfy  the  wishes  of  pupils  and 
parents.  On  the  whole,  I  prefer  a  classification 
based  upon  the  first  principle — a  close  classifica- 
tion— to  one  based  upon  the  second,  a  loose  classifi- 
cation ;  and  if  pupils  are  better  versed  in  some  stu- 
dies, and  less  advanced  in  others,  they  can  equalize 
their  attainments  by  devoting  more  attention  to  the 
latter,  and,  if  circumstances  render  it  necessary, 
some  special  classes  can  be  formed  to  meet  the 
views  of  parents  or  the  tastes  of  pupils.     I  recom- 


84  THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

mend  in  our  Common  Scliools,  therefore,  a  close 
classification,  with  such  departures  from  it  as  over- 
ruling circumstances  may  make  expedient. 

Data  for  the  formation  of  classes  must  be  obtained 
by  a  formal  examination  or  by  experimental  recita- 
tions, as  previously  described.  With  accurate  data, 
the  work  of  classification  will  present  little  difii- 
culty  in  a  school  where  the  number  of  classes  is 
fixed,  and  where  such  pupils  only  are  admitted  as 
can  enter  the  classes ;  but  in  schools  where  the 
classes  must  be  formed  to  suit  the  multifarious  at- 
tainments of  the  pupils,  this  work  requires  careful 
management.  It  seems  appropriate  to  speak  of  the 
advantages  of  classification,  the  impediments  in  the 
way  of  classification,  and  the  manner  of  forming 
classes. 

Classification  economizes  time.  The  teacher  can 
do  much  more  work  when  he  need  only  listen  to 
the  recitations  of  whole  classes,  instead  of  the  reci- 
tations of  individuals ;  when  he  need  not  repeat  to 
each  pupil  explanations  or  illustrations  of  the  lesson 
or  additions  to  it.  The  time  thus  saved  by  the 
teacher  can  be  used  greatly  to  the  profit  of  the 
pupils. 

Classification  enables  the  teacher  to  make  special 
preparation  for  hearing  the  recitations  of  his  classes. 
If  a  teacher  has  pupils  engaged  in  many  different 
studies  and  in  all  parts  of  the  same  study,  it  is  ob- 
viously impossible  for  him  to  make  the  necessary 
special  preparation  for  his  work;  and  his  teaching 
is,  consequently,  less  effective  than  it  would  other- 
wise be. 

Classification  stimulates  pupils  to  more  diligent 


THE    PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  85 

study.  The  common  experience  of  teachers  reveals 
the  fact  that  pupils  will  study  more  diligently  to 
make  preparation  for  a  class-recitation  than  for  a 
recitation  by  themselves.  The  presence  of  numbers 
in  the  class-room,  and  the  competition  of  classmates, 
will  sometimes  prompt  even  dull  minds  to  activity. 
There  is  such  a  thing,  too,  as  a  class  esimt  du  corps^ 
the  advantage  of  which  is  lost  when  each  pupil 
recites  by  himself  or  in  a  small  class. 

Classification  tends  to  increase  the  teacher's  in- 
terest in  the  instruction  he  imparts.  Animation  on 
the  part  of  a  teacher  is  essential  to  good  teaching. 
A  dull  teacher  will  make  a  dull  class.  A  clergy- 
man would  hardly  take  a  very  warm  interest  in 
preaching  if  he  had  but  a  single  listener.  The 
delivery  of  the  best  oration  would  be  spoiled  with- 
out an  audience.  The  same  principle  is  applicable 
to  teaching.  A  teacher  is  roused  up  to  earnest 
effort  when  a  large  plass  awaits  his  instruction. 

Classification  enables  pupils  to  help  one  another. 
The  members  of  a  class  help  one  another  by  their 
silent  presence,  but  still  more  by  proper  criticism. 
If  the  teacher  is  compelled  to  correct  all  mistakes, 
the  recitation  is  apt  to  grow  monotonous;  w^hile 
class-criticism  renders  it  lively,  and  is  advantageous 
both  for  the  critics  and  the  criticized. 

Certain  impediments  lie  in  the  way  of  securing  a 
complete  classification  in  schools;  and  these  must 
now  be  considered. 

Diversity  of  text-books  is  such  an  impediment. 
When  the  pupils  in  a  school,  of  equal  attainments, 
have  been  furnished  with  the  same  kind  of  books, 
their  formation  into  classes  is  comparatively  easy. 


S6  THE    ORGANIZATION    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

If  there  is  a  want  of  uniformity  in  the  text-bookg 
of  a  school,  the  teacher  should  apply  for  a  remedy 
to  the  proper  school-officers  ;  or,  failing  here,  he  may 
apply  to  parents,  either  directly  or  through  their 
children.  If  this  application  is  made  in  a  proper 
manner,  in  most  cases  it  will  result  favorably  to  the 
teacher's  wishes.  Should  it  not,  the  case  is  still 
not  a  hopeless  one,  for  the  teacher  can  form  his 
classes  just  as  if  the  books  were  uniform,  and  modify 
his  teaching  to  suit  the  circumstances.  Nearly  the 
same  subjects  are  treated  of  in  all  text-books;  and 
the  teacher  can  assign  some  topic  for  a  lesson,  and 
the  pupils  can  each  use  his  own  book  in  preparing 
for  the  recitation.  A  recitation  can  take  place  with 
respect  to  a  rule  in  Arithmetic,  a  part  of  speech  in 
Grammar,  a  country  in  Geography,  a  division  in 
Natural  Science,  a  period  in  History,  even  if  the 
subject-matter  be  learned  from  different  books.  It 
is  acknowledged  that  such  a  mode  of  reciting  would 
add  very  much  to  the  teacher's  labor,  confuse  the 
pupils,  and  clog  the  recitation;  but  it  is  thought 
to  be  a  less  evil  than  an  excessive  multiplication  of 
classes ;  and  sometimes  even  good  may  result  from  it. 
Irregular  attendance  of  pupils  is  such  an  impedi- 
ment. Public  school-authorities  everywhere  com- 
plain that  pupils  attend  school  irregularly.  Private 
schools  are  patronized  by  classes  of  people  who,  as 
a  general  thing,  more  highly  appreciate  education, 
whose  circumstances  enable  them  better  to  dispense 
with  the  services  of  their  children  at  home,  or  whom, 
perhaps,  a  pecuniary  motive  prompts,  and  hence 
equally  loud  complaints  are  not  made  by  them.  Ir- 
regularity of  attendance,  wherever  it  occurs,  inter- 


THE    PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  S7 

feres  greatly  with  tlie  classification  of  a  school;  but, 
at  the  worst,  the  teacher  can  classify  such  pupils  as 
do  attend  regularly,  and  proceed  to  instruct  them. 
He  can  permit  irregular  pupils  to  enter  the  classes, 
and  perhaps  they  may  be  made  to  feel  the  want  of 
a  knowledge  of  the  lessons  recited  during  theii 
absence,  and  can  thus  be  induced  to  be  more  punc- 
tual in  their  attendance.  If  pupils  attend  so  irre- 
gularly that  they  can  derive  no  profit  from  the  in- 
struction given  to  the  classes  of  which  they  ought 
to  be  members,  the  teacher  may  devote  to  them  the 
few  minutes  which  would  be  their  share  of  time  in 
an  equal  division  of  it  among  the  pupils.  They 
can  justly  claim  no  more.  But,  while  this  would 
probably  be  the  best  mode  of  procedure  under  the 
most  unfavorable  circumstances,  the  teacher  may 
many  times  do  something  to  correct  the  evil.  There 
are  numerous  instances  in  which  irregular  attend- 
ance has  been  almost  wholly  corrected  under  the 
judicious  management  of  a  skilful  teacher.  Irre- 
gular attendance  is  either  the  fault  of  the  teacher, 
the  parent,  or  the  pupil.  If  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
teacher,  he  should  correct  it  by  teaching  and  man- 
aging better, — by  making  the  school  attractive,  pre- 
senting strong  motives  to  punctuality,  interesting  the 
pupils  in  their  studies,  and  inducing  them  to  love 
school  and  teacher.  To  tell  how  to  do  this  is  the 
great  purpose  of  this  book.  That  it  may  be  done, 
is  attested  by  multitudes  of  facts.  If  the  irregular 
attendance  is  the  fault  of  the  parent,  the  teacher 
ought  to  seek  an  opportunity  of  pointing  out  to 
him  its  disadvantage  to  the  pupil  as  an  individual 
and  to  the  school  as  a  whole.     One  visit  of  the 


88      THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

teacher  to  the  parent  or  of  the  parent  to  the  school 
has  frequently  brought  about  a  right  understanding 
of  the  matter,  and  secured  the  application  of  the 
proper  corrective.  The  pupils  may  be  the  most 
blameworthy  parties.  The  parent  may  send  them  to 
school,  the  teacher  may  be  ready  to  receive  and  in- 
struct them,  but  they  find  attractions  by  the  way,  and 
become  truants.  If  parents  and  teachers  co-operate, 
truancy  cannot  be  of  frequent  occurrence.  An 
arrangement  may  be  readily  made  by  which  the 
parent  can  inform  the  teacher  whenever  his  children 
have  been  detained  at  home,  and  by  which  the 
teacher  can  inform  the  parent  whenever  they  do  not 
attend  school.  As  many  parents  will  object  to  writ- 
ing excuses  for  the  absences  of  their  children,  the 
teacher  may  supply  himself  with  a  few  hundred 
excuse-cards,  upon  which  is  simply  printed,  '^Excuse 
the  bearer."  These  may  be  distributed  to  the 
patrons  of  the  school,  and  one  of  them  should  be 
returned  to  the  teacher  by  each  pupil  who  has  been 
necessarily  absent.  At  the  end  of  a  term,  all  the 
cards  should  be  returned  to  the  teacher,  preparatory 
to  the  arrangements  for  a  new  term. 

Laws  have  been  made  in  some  foreign  countries, 
and  in  some  localities  in  this  country,  punishing  tru- 
ancy, and  punishing  parents  for  not  sending  their 
children  to  school.  In  favor  of  such  laws,  it  is  argued 
that  if  the  state  has  a  right  to  educate  the  children 
of  the  state  and  deem  this  work  to  be  to  its  interest,  it 
would  follow  that  no  parent  can  deny  his  child  this 
education  without  violating  his  duty  as  a  citizen,  and 
no  child  can  habitually  absent  himself  without  endan- 
gering the  state's  interests  and  thus  making  himself 


THE    PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  89 

liable  to  punishment.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  main- 
tained that  the  legitimate  function  of  the  state  in 
reference  to  schools  is  ended  when  it  generalizes 
into  laws  the  wishes  of  majorities  of  citizens  and 
aids  good  citizens  in  the  enforcement  of  these  laws, 
and  that  it  transcends  its  right  when  it  undertakes 
to  force  unwilling  parents  to  send  their  children  to 
school,  or  to  punish  children  for  their  non-attend- 
ance. In  all  a  state  can  do  respecting  the  establish- 
ment of  systems  of  education,  it  must  have  in  view 
the  end  of  public  order ;  and,  while  the  state  may 
be  convinced  that  education  tends  to  promote  public 
order,  it  can  in  no  rightful  way  punish  until  some 
overt  act  of  crime  or  disorder  has  been  committed; 
and  it  is  evident  that  the  mere  refusal  of  a  parent 
to  send  a  child  to  school,  or  for  a  child  to  refuse  to 
attend  school,  is  not  such  an  act.  The  state  may 
adopt  systems  of  education,  may  hold  out  induce- 
ments to  secure  regular  attendance ;  but,  if  any  do 
not  attend,  the  state  must  wait,  before  inflicting 
punishment  for  non-attendance,  until  its  bad  conse- 
quences manifest  themselves  by  open  acts  of  wrong. 
Laws  designed  to  compel  the  attendance  of  children 
at  school  are  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  our  American 
institutions ;  and,  if  not,  such  laws  are  extremely 
impolitic,  owing  to  the  difficulties  that  must  arise  in 
enforcing  them.  Teachers,  therefore,  should  look 
to  other  means  as  a  remedy  for  irregular  attendance ; 
and  if  no  help  come  thence,  they  must  philosophically 
do  the  best  they  can,  consoling  themselves  with  the 
reflection  that  their  successors  may  be  privileged  to 
teach  among  a  wiser  generation  of  people. 

Having  pointed   out   the   advantages  of  school- 


90      THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

classification,  and  having  shown  how  impediments 
which  lie  in  the  way  of  such  a  classification  can  be 
removed,  supposing  that  the  teacher  has  in  his  pos- 
session the  necessary  data  concerning  his  pupils* 
attainments,  something  must  now  be  said  in  refer- 
ence to  the  manner  in  which  classes  may  be  formed. 
No  two  pupils  can  be  found  in  a  school  who  are 
exactly  alike  in  scholarship ;  and  if  the  teacher 
forms  his  classes  by  putting  only  those  in  one  class 
whose  attainments  are  precisely  alike,  he  will  have 
each  of  his  classes  composed  of  a  single  pupil.  The 
best  he  can  do  is  to  carefully  survey  his  material, 
calculate  the  amount  of  school-time,  decide  upon 
the  number  of  classes  he  can  hear  recite,  and  then 
classify  his  pupils  by  putting  those  in  one  class  who 
are  most  nearly  alike  in  scholarship  and  ability.  If 
pupils  fall  behind  their  class  during  a  term,  or  gain 
a  position  in  advance  of  it,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty 
to  make  the  proper  transfers ;  and  it  might  be  added 
that  a  faithful  discharge  of  this  duty  greatly  pro- 
motes the  good  of  a  school.  Large  schools  can  be 
classed  much  better  than  small  ones,  because  there 
are  in  them  more  pupils  of  nearly  the  same  qualifi- 
cation. In  assigning  lessons  to  classes  whose  mem- 
bers differ  in  ability,  the  teacher  must  adapt  the 
lesson  to  the  pupils  who  represent  the  average  capa- 
city of  the  class ;  because  in  this  way  only  can  he 
avoid  discouraging  the  poorest  scholars  in  the  class 
by  assigning  lessons  that  are  much  too  hard,  or 
creating  habits  of  idleness  on  the  part  of  the  best  by 
giving  work  which  costs  them  little  effort.  If  the 
lessons  are  assigned  in  this  way,  the  teacher  can  so 
manage  the  recitation  that  the  honest,  hard-working 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  91 

pupils  may  accomplisli  something  every  day  and  be 
stimulated  by  success  to  further  exertion,  the  smart, 
active  pupils  find  something  in  the  lesson  worthy  of 
study  and  quite  equal  to  their  ability,  and  the  idle 
of  both  classes  incur,  by  frequent  failures,  the  just 
consequences  of  their  misspent  time.  By  judicious 
management,  the  members  of  a  class  who  are  quite 
unequal  in  ability  can  be  gradually  brought  to  work 
more  evenly  in  practice. 

The  size  of  classes  must  depend  upon  the  age  of 
pupils,  the  kind  of  study  in  which  they  are  engaged, 
the  form  of  the  recitation,  the  skill  of  the  teacher, 
and  the  amount  of  work  the  teacher  has  to  do. 
Young  pupils  recite  better  in  small  classes  than  in 
larger  ones.  Their  attention  can  be  better  retained, 
and  frequent  questions  will  excite  greater  interest 
in  the  lesson.  It  is  possible  for  a  skilful  teacher  to 
amuse  a  class  of  fifty  young  pupils  and  to  mingle 
some  instruction  with  the  amusement;  but  his 
teaching  would  be  much  more  effective  with  a  class 
one-fifth  as  large.  Advanced  pupils  may  with  less 
loss  than  beginners  be  formed  into  large  classes; 
but,  even  with  such,  the  class  should  not  be  so  large 
that  the  teacher  cannot  ask  at  least  one  leading 
question  of  each  of  its  members  during  a  recitation. 
Some  members  of  a  class  may  be  required  to  recite 
a  greater  part  of  the  lesson  one  day  than  others; 
but  if  many  are  repeatedly  overlooked,  and  allowed 
to  pass  away  often  from  the  recitation  without  being 
noticed  or  called  upon,  there  will  soon  be  some  who 
will  calculate  the  chances  of  escaping  the  responsi- 
bility of  answering  any  questions  at  all,  and  will  pre- 
pare themselves  accordingly.     This  result  is  not  un- 

10 


92  THE    ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

common  even  in  College  classes.  It  is  more  con- 
venient to  liave  large  classes  in  some  studies  than  in 
others.  Classes  in  Spelling,  Writing,  Drawing,  Vocal 
Music,  &c.,  may  be  larger  than  those  in  Arithmetic, 
Grammar,  &c. ;  because  in  the  former  class  of  studies 
all  the  pupils  can  recite  simultaneously.  If  a  class 
meet  a  teacher  to  hear  a  lecture  from  him,  to  receive 
instruction  which  he  is  to  impart  himself  without 
asking  any  or  many  questions  of  the  pupils,  it  may 
be  much  larger  than  if  the  purpose  of  meeting  be 
a  drill,  an  examination,  or  a  close  and  careful  in- 
spection of  what  each  pupil  has  learned  and  the 
manner  in  which  he  has  learned  it  and  can  repro- 
duce it.  In  other  words,  the  form  of  recitation  may 
modify  the  size  of  a  class.  A  skilful  teacher  can 
manage  a  large  class  without  the  same  disadvantages 
resulting  to  it  as  if  managed  by  one  who  has  had  little 
experience.  This  is  self-evident.  "With  a  large  school, 
and  a  great  variety  of  studies  in  which  to  hear  recita- 
tions, a  teacher  may  be  compelled,  as  the  choice  of 
evils,  to  form  larger  classes  than  he  would  deem 
politic  under  more  favorable  circumstances. 

5th.  The  Distribution  of  the  Classes  among  the 
Teachers. — ^What  is  said  in  reference  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  classes  of  a  school  among  its  teachers 
can  only  be  applicable  to  schools  in  which  more 
than  one  teacher  is  employed ;  but  in  such  schools 
it  is  a  matter  deserving  consideration. 

The  several  teachers  in  a  school  ought  to  be  em- 
ployed with  reference  to  the  qualifications  which  fit 
them  to  perform  the  work  desired  to  be  done.  No 
teacher  can  impart  instruction  in  all  branches 
equally  well;  and  school- work  should  be  divided 


THE   PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  93 

into  several  departments,  and  each,  department  be 
assigned  to  the  teacher  who  can  perform  its  duties 
to  the  best  advantage.  A  wise  economy  of  the 
teaching-force  of  a  school  would  direct  that  each 
teacher  should  teach  those  branches  which  he  can 
teach  bestj  and  undertake  to  teach  no  more  of  them 
than  he  can  teach  well.  Teachers  sometimes  at- 
tempt to  listen  to  recitations  in  twelve  or  fifteen 
different  branches  in  a  day.  In  such  cases  they 
must  try  to  teach  some  branches  for  which  they  are 
badly  qualified,  they  can  make  but  little  prepara- 
tion for  the  recitations,  and  they  must  be  unable 
either  to  satisfy  themselves  or  do  justice  to  their 
pupils.  If  due  regard  be  paid  to  these  principles, 
large  schools  may  be  organized  with  an  efliciency 
impossible  of  attainment  in  any  other  way.  By 
this  arrangement,  too,  each  teacher  may  be  made 
responsible  for  a  department  of  study,  and,  as  he 
feels  a  special  interest  in  it,  he  will  naturally  strive 
to  make  it  successful.  It  needs  scarcely  be  added 
that  the  work  of  the  school  should  be  equally  dis- 
tributed among  the  teachers,  and  if  one  branch  of 
instruction  does  not  furnish  a  suflSLcient  amount 
of  work  for  a  teacher,  his  department  may  be  made 
to  include  several  kindred  branches.  It  must 
be  taken  into  consideration,  however,  that  some 
branches  are  more  difficult  to  teach,  and,  conse- 
quently, require  more  preparation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  than  others. 

If  the  principle,  that  it  is  best  to  assign  to  each 
teacher  those  branches  which  he  is  best  qualified  to 
teach,  be  observed,  each  class  may  have  a  difierent 
teacher  in  each  different  study.     This  is  no  small 


94  THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

advantage  to  a  pupil.  If  he  recite  always  to  tlie 
same  teacher,  he  may  become  familiar  with  certain 
lines  of  thought,  but  he  will  most  likely  be  confined 
to  them.  lie  might  be  trained  by  a  more  unvaried 
discipline,  but  it  is  a  discipline  in  one  direction.  He 
becomes  imbued  with  his  teacher's  peculiar  opinions, 
acquires  his  manners,  and  is  apt  to  create  a  little 
w^orld  in  which  his  teacher  is  the  reigning  sove- 
reign and  himself  the  most  conspicuous  citizen  of 
the  realm.  It  is  much  better  for  all  pupils  to  have 
different  teachers,  with  different  tastes,  talents,  and 
opinions ;  but  it  is  very  important  that  this  should 
be  the  case  with  advanced  pupils.  In  speaking  of 
graded  schools,  such  arrangements  of  school-build- 
ings were  provided  for  as  would  admit  the  carrying 
out  in  practice  of  the  principles  now  stated;  and  I  am 
well  satisfied  that  a  school  so  organized  will  work 
much  more  efliciently  than  one  in  which  the  pupils  of 
each  grade  recite  all  their  lessons  to  a  single  teacher. 
6th.  The  Arrangement  of  Times  for  Study  and  Reci- 
tation,— Classes  should  receive  general  directions  as 
to  the  time  of  preparing  their  lessons.  It  is  the 
misfortune  of  many,  that  when  they  have  several 
things  to  do,  and  have  adopted  no  particular  order 
of  doing  them,  in  their  doubt  as  to  which  they 
ought  to  begin  first,  they  neglect  the  whole.  Sys- 
tem, rigid  system,  is  as  valuable  in  its  results,  when 
conformed  to  in  preparing  lessons,  as  it  is  in  other 
things.  These  general  directions  may  have  refer- 
ence, first,  to  the  advantage  that  will  arise  from 
having  times  for  study,  and,  afterwards,  it  may  be 
proper  to  suggest  that  certain  studies  might  be  best 
prepared  during  school-hours   and   certain  others 


THE    PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  95 

out  of  school-hours.  A  more  particular  arrange- 
ment of  the  order  to  be  observed  in  preparing  the 
several  studies  in  which  a  pupil  may  be  engaged, 
ought  to  be  left  mainly  to  the  pupil  himself  It  is 
perhaps  impolitic  generally  to  insist  upon  the  mem- 
bers of  a  whole  class  attending  to  the  same  studies 
at  the  same  time,  though  this  may  be  done  with 
young  pupil  s  and  with  classes  whose  members  possess 
equal  attainments,  with  good  results;  but,  when 
pupils  have  made  out  their  own  programmes  of 
study- time,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  make 
himself  acquainted  with  them,  because,  in  calling 
pupils'  attention  to  their  work,  a  command  direct- 
ing them  to  the  performance  of  a  particular  duty  is 
much  more  effective  than  one  directing  them  to  the 
performance  of  a  general  duty.  Whenever  a  teacher 
deems  it  expedient  to  assign  the  same  time  to  all 
the  members  of  a  class  for  the  preparation  of  a 
lesson,  it  may  with  propriety  be  stated  in  the  school- 
programme. 

In  institutions  where  boarding  and  lodging  are 
furnished  to  pupils,  regular  times  must  be  appointed 
for  retiring,  for  rising,  for  devotional  exercises,  and 
for  recreation,  as  well  as  for  preparing  lessons  and 
reciting  them. 

The  following  outline  of  a  Student's  Programme 
may  aid  in  systematizing  the  student's  work.  It 
will  only  be  filled  up  so  far  as  to  illustrate  the  man- 
ner of  doing  it.  Each  student  should  fill  up  one 
for  himself,  and  hang  it  near  his  desk  or  study- 
taole.  Once  adopted,  he  should  suffer  no  ordinary 
circumstance  to  prevent  him  from  working  in  exact 
accordance  with  it.  In  a  short  time  habit  will  render 

10* 


&6 


THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


a  compliance  with  its  requirements  more  easy,  and 
the  good  results  will  soon  more  than  compensate 
for  the  trifling  inconvenience  which  may  at  first  be 
experienced  from  the  fixed  line  of  duties  that  it 
enjoins. 


STUDENTS'  PROGEAMME. 

(Name  of  School.) 


(Date.) 


TIME. 

GENERAL  DAILY  DUTIES. 

SPECIAL  DUTIES. 

5   A.M. 

Rise. 

Sabbath.  —  Read 

6.20  A.M. 

Study  Grammar. 

Scriptures    from 

6    A.M. 

Take  a  walk. 

8  to  9  A.M.;  at- 

6.30 A.M. 

Breakfast. 

tend   Church    at 

7    A.M. 

Study  Latin. 

10;    and    Bible- 

8   A.M. 

Attend  Opening  Exercises  of  the 

Class  at  2  P.M. 

School. 

Saturday  Evening. 

8.30  A.M. 

Recite  Arithmetic. 

—Attend     Meet- 

9.30 A.M. 

Recite  Botany. 

ing  of  Society  at 

7  P.M. 

The  time  and  length  of  each  recitation  must  be 
fixed.  "Without  this  the  work  of  the  school  would 
go  on  very  irregularly,  and  with  little  satisfaction  to 
the  teacher  and  little  profit  to  the  pupils.  The 
principal  data  for  determining  the  time  and  length 
of  recitations  are  the  length  of  the  school-day,  the 
number  and  kind  of  recitations  to  be  heard  daily, 
and,  when  several  teachers  are  employed  in  the 
same  school,  the  number  of  teachers  and  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  performed  by  them,  and  the 
rooms  in  which  the  recitations  are  heard.  These 
differ  in  different  schools ;  and  the  only  comprehen- 
sive principle  that  can  be  stated  concerning  the 
matter  is,  that  the  time  and  length  of  recitations  in 


THE    PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  97 

all  schools  should  be  such  as  to  insure  justice  to  all 
classes  and  all  individuals,  and  to  secure  the  greatest 
possible  efficiency  in  the  school.  A  few  particular 
suggestions,  however,  may  be  of  service  to  young 
teachers. 

With  advanced  pupils,  one  recitation  daily  in 
each  regular  branch  studied  will  be  sufficient.  Ee- 
citations  may  take  place  on  alternate  days,  or  less 
frequently;  but  it  will  be  found  everywhere  that, 
while  pupils  can  study  more  branches  at  a  time  in 
this  way,  their  interest  in  study  will  not  be  so  great, 
nor  will  their  work  be  so  thoroughly  done.  The 
best  plan  is  to  assign  a  daily  lesson  in  each  branch 
studied,  and  make  it  of  such  a  length  that  it  can  be 
well  prepared,  and  have  a  daily  recitation  in  it. 
This  is  not  intended  to  discourage  teachers  from 
having  special  exercises  on  miscellaneous  subjects 
at  any  time  they  may  deem  them  advantageous  to 
the  interests  of  the  school. 

With  young  pupils  in  ungraded  or  Primary 
schools,  the  recitations  should  be  frequent  and 
short.  Children  of  six  or  eight  years  of  age  have 
difficulty  in  attending  closely  to  a  recitation  for  a 
long  time,  and  yet  they  will  be  pleased  with  the 
variety  of  exercises  brought  about  by  frequent  reci- 
tations. Besides,  they  cannot  be  expected  to  study 
much  apart  from  the  recitation. 

Theory  would  demand  the  hearing  daily  of  all  the 
lessons  that  the  pupils  in  a  school  can  prepare,  and 
the  setting  apart  of  a  sufficient  time  to  attend  to  all 
the  requirements  of  the  recitation.  Theory  would 
also  demand  the  recitations  to  take  place  at  hours 
when  the  pupils  are  best  prepared  to  recite,  or  at 


98      THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

which  the  teacher  can  best  impart  his  instruction  or 
they  can  best  profit  by  it.  Practice  must  conform  to 
the  theory  as  nearly  as  circumstances  will  admit. 

In  ungraded  schools,  the  younger  pupils  might 
recite  first  after  the  opening  of  the  school,  both  in 
the  morning  and  the  afternoon.  They  are  supposed 
to  be  ready  at  any  time,  inasmuch  as  they  have  little 
preparation  to  make. 

Older  pupils  may  recite,  first,  those  lessons  which  it 
was  found  most  convenient  to  prepare  out  of  school. 

The  most  severe  studies  should  not  be  recited 
near  the  close  of  the  school  day.  Recitations  in 
Reading,  Writing,  Spelling,  or  Vocal  Music,  would 
be  best  calculated  for  the  last  hour  of  the  day. 
"Writing  and  Drawing  Lessons  should  not  imme- 
diately follow  active  physical  exercise. 

In  all  schools  there  are  certain  general  exercises 
that  cannot  well  be  dispensed  with.  Of  this  cha- 
racter are  moral  lessons,  lectures  upon  subjects  not 
regularly  studied,  or  special  instruction  in  certain 
branches  which  an  economy  of  time  will  demand 
should  be  given  to  the  whole  school. 

Frequent  reviews  of  the  subjects  studied  will 
tend  to  deepen  the  impression  upon  the  minds  of 
pupils,  promote  a  clearer  understanding  of  what  is 
studied,  and  do  much  to  connect  the  fragmentary 
daily  lessons  into  a  connected  whole.  For  these 
reasons  they  are  valuable,  and  a  place  must  be  pro- 
vided for  them  in  making  general  arrangements  in 
regard  to  study. 

A  programme  of  the  operations  of  a  school  will 
be  presented  on  a  subsequent  page ;  and  all  that  is 
intended  here  is  to  inform  the  teacher  as  fully  as 


THE   PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  99 

possible  in  regard  to  the  principles  wMcli  concern 
its  construction,  so  far  as  that  is  related  to  times 
and  lengths  of  recitations.  It  needs  only  to  be  re- 
marked, further,  that  Superintendents  or  Principals 
of  schools  with  a  number  of  teachers  working 
under  their  direction,  should  frequently  visit  all  the 
classes  while  reciting,  should  require  at  least  weekly 
reports  from  all  the  teachers  as  to  their  condition; 
and  when  they  find  that  some  change  in  their  Pro- 
gramme will  make  their  schools  work  more  effi- 
ciently, and  only  then,  they  should  change  it. 

2.  Provisions  relating  to  Order. — Provisions 
relating  to  order  must  embrace  the  following  par- 
ticulars : — 

1st.  The  Conditions  upon  which  Pupils  may  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  School, 

2d.   The  School-Limits. 

8d.   The  Length  of  the  School-Lay, 

4th.  The  Time  and  Length  of  Intermissions. 

5th.  The  Opening  and  Closing  Exercises  of  the 
School, 

6th.  The  Calling  out  and  Dismissing  of  Classes. 

A.  Leaving  Seats. 

B.  Speaking  to  one  another. 
c.  Asking    Questions  of  the 

7th.   The  Granting  of  I  Teacher. 

Special  Privileges.  \  n.  Making  Complaints  to  the 

Teacher, 
E.  Receiving  Help  from  the 
\  Teacher. 

8th.   The  Transaction  of  General  Business. 
9th.   The  Administration  of  Discipline, 


100     THE  ORGANIZATION  OP  THE  SCHOOL. 

1st.  Tlie  Conditions  upon  v)hich  Fupils  may  be  ad- 
milted  into  the  School, — These  conditions  generally 
have  respect  to  locality,  age,  and  scholarship.  In 
the  case  of  our  Common  Schools,  the  State  laws, 
and  the  authorities  properly  authorized  by  them, 
impose  the  conditions.  Each  town  or  township  is 
divided  into  convenient  school-districts,  which  are 
about  equal  in  population,  and  the  children  of  such 
districts  are  required  to  attend  their  proper  school. 
This  arrangement  causes  all  the  schools  to  be 
nearly  equal  in  size,  and,  when  fully  carried  out, 
effectually  prevents  the  evil  of  having  some  schools 
too  large,  while  others  are  too  small.  The  age  at 
which  pupils  may  attend  school  depends  wholly 
upon  circumstances.  Schools  have  been  so  con- 
ducted as  to  be  proper  places  for  children  three  or 
four  years  old,  although  our  school-laws  do  not 
often  admit  them  before  the  age  of  five  or  six;  and, 
if  a  person  has  been  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of 
learning  previously,  it  is  praiseworthy  for  him  to 
make  the  effort  at  twenty-one,  or  beyond  that  age. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  see  in  the  ISTight  Schools  of  our 
cities,  men  who  have  reached  the  age  of  fifty  years. 
The  qualifications  necessary  to  admit  a  pupil  into  a 
particular  school  depend  upon  the  grade  of  school 
and  the  course  of  study  adopted  in  the  system  of 
schools  of  w^hich  it  is  a  part. 

In  schools  managed  by  individuals  or  corpora- 
tions, the  locality  from  which  pupils  must  come, 
the  age,  and  the  degree  of  scholarship  required  for 
entering,  are  determined  by  private  considerations. 
The  ends  for  which  schools  are  established  are  so 
various,  and  the  circumstances  that  surround  them 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  101^ 

SO  unlike,  that  even  with  those  that  are  called  by 
the  same  name  there  is  little  uniformity  in  any 
thing. 

2d.  Tlie  School-Limits. — ^By  school-limits  are  meant 
the  grounds  connected  with  the  school-house,  upon 
which  the  pupils  have  a  right  to  play,  and  to  the 
extent  of  which  they  have  a  right  to  go  without 
obtaining  the  special  consent  of  the  teacher. 
Teachers  of  schools  with  play-grounds  attached  to 
them  sufficiently  large,  need  have  little  trouble  in 
fixing  the  school-limits,  as  the  boundaries  of  the 
grounds  themselves  should  limit  the  distance  the 
pupils  may  go  away  from  the  school-house  during 
intermissions.  More  difficulty,  however,  will  be 
experienced  in  keeping  pupils  within  proper  bounds 
when  the  place  for  play  must  be  the  highway,  a 
neighboring  wood,  a  wide-extended  common,  or 
when  the  privilege  of  play  in  some  adjoining  field 
is  granted  by  its  owner.  In  such  cases  the  distance 
from  the  school-house  the  pupils  may  be  allowed  to 
go  may  be  made  to  depend  upon  the  teacher's 
means  of  communicating  with  them,  and  the  time 
that  might  be  lost  in  collecting  them  from  play. 

In  no  case  should  pupils  be  suffered  to  trespass 
on  the  neighboring  property  without  the  owner's 
consent.  It  looks  badly  for  the  teacher,  and  pro- 
mises unfavorably  for  his  pupils,  when  the  trees 
near  a  school  are  stripped  of  their  bark  or  their 
foliage,  when  fences  are  thrown  down  or  destroyed, 
or  when  growing  crops  are  injured,  or  fruit  stolen. 
A  distinct  understanding  should  be  had  between 
teacher  and  pupils  as  to  the  school-limits  and  tres- 
passes upon  surrounding  property. 


102  THE  ORGANIZATION   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

8d.  The  Length  of  the  School-Day, — It  is  quite  easy 
to  adopt  extreme  views  in  regard  to  the  proper 
length  of  the  school-day.  The  sight  of  feeble  chil- 
dren, who  are  confined  seven  or  eight  hours  a  day 
in  school,  who  recite  one  or  two  lessons  every  hour, 
which  have  to  be  prepared  out  of  school-hours,  who 
have  no  time  to  play,  and  soon  lose  all  taste  for  it, 
is  enough  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  less  study 
and  more  exercise  would  be  beneficial.  A  few 
sights  of  this  kind,  accompanied  with  rumors  that 
death  or  insanity  has  somewhere  occurred  from  too 
hard  study,  are  sufficient  to  excite  public  attention 
and  to  set  the  newspapers  to  talking  about  the 
matter.  The  cry  is,  "  The  Innocents  are  murdered  !'* 
and  excitable  school-authorities  hasten  to  forbid 
study  out  of  school-hours,  restrict  the  number  of 
studies  in  the  schools,  and  reduce  to  three  hours  the 
length  of  the  school-day.     This  is  one  extreme. 

A  teacher  takes  charge  of  a  school  in  a  neighbor- 
hood in  which  the  people  work  hard  but  do  not 
think  much.  He  finds  his  pupils  strong,  but  dull. 
They  can  lift,  and^  run,  and  labor,  but  can  scarcely 
be  induced  to  study.  He  calls  into  requisition  all 
the  motives  that  can  arouse  their  mental  energies. 
The  ordinary  school-days  are  too  short  for  his  work. 
He  meets  his  pupils  in  the  morning,  in  the  evening, 
during  noontime,  on  Saturdays,  and  visits  them  at 
their  homes ;  and,  with  all  this  exertion,  they  do  not 
make  very  rapid  progress.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  conclu- 
sion is  reached,  that  ten  hours  are  not  too  long  a 
period  for  the  length  of  a  school-day.  This  is  the 
other  extreme. 


THE    PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  103 

It  is  true  tliat  some  pupils  study  too  mucli  and 
are  confined  too  closely;  and  it  is  equally  true  that 
others  study  too  little,  and  work  until  their  brain 
seems  hardened  into  muscle.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  the  induction  of  a  general  rule  from  one  class 
of  circumstances  would  lead  to  error.  The  age  of 
pupils,  their  occupation,  the  locality  in  which  they 
live,  the  constancy  of  their  attendance  at  school, 
their  state  of  health,  their  temperament,  must  all 
be  considered  in  determining  the  length  of  the 
school-day. 

In  a  Primary  or  Infant  School,  the  children  ought 
not  to  be  confined  in  the  school-room  more  than  a 
half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour  at  a  time.  The 
length  of  the  school-day  may  be  five  or  six  hours, 
but  periods  of  study  should  alternate  very  fre- 
quently with  periods  of  play.  In  an  ungraded 
school  in  which  there  are  young  pupils,  they  must 
be  allowed  to  spend  much  of  their  time  upon  the 
play-ground.  They  can  be  taught  to  go  out  and 
come  in  at  stated  periods  without  troubling  any  one 
or  interrupting  in  any  way  the  rest  of  the  school. 
I  think  this  arrangement  is  better  than  that  which 
permits  young  pupils  to  attend  a  school  in  the 
morning  and  older  ones  in  the  afternoon,  or  opens 
a  summer  school  for  one  class  and  a  winter  school 
for  the  other. 

A  farmer's  son,  who  works  hard  for  eight  months 

in  the  year,  and  who  walks  a  mile  to  school  after 

having  spent  an  hour  or  two  in  cutting  wood  or 

foddering  cattle,  and  returns  home  again  at  the 

close  of  the  school-day  to  engage  in  similar  tasks, 

will  not  sufier  from  close  confinement  in  school  for 

11 


104  THE   OROANIZATION   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

a  length  of  time  that  might  endanger  the  health  of 
a  delicate  city  girl,  who  rides  to  school,  never  works, 
seldom  breathes  fresh  air,  and  whose  diet  is  often 
highly  stimulating.  The  length  of  the  school-day 
in  the  country  may  generally  be  longer  than  in 
cities;  and  two  sessions  a  day  are  better  everywhere 
than  one.  Those  who  attend  school  constantly 
require  more  exercise  daily  while  at  school  than 
others  who  attend  school  but  a  few  months  in  the 
year. 

Parents  must  take  proper  care  of  their  children 
who  are  delicate.  School  is  not  the  place  to  nurse 
sick  people.  They  require  special  attention,  which 
no  teacher  who  does  his  duty  to  his  whole  school 
can  render.  Precocious  children,  or  those  whose 
temperament  leads  them  to  study  too  closely,  must 
be  watched  and  warned.  K  no  injustice  be  done 
to  others,  some  special  privileges  may  be  allowed 
them,  which  may  be  calculated  to  restore  to  their 
mental  nature  its  equilibrium. 

Weighing  all  the  circumstances  as  best  I  can,  I 
give  it  as  my  opinion  that  in  country  schools  a  ses- 
sion of  three  or  three  and  a  half  hours  in  the  fore- 
noon, and  one  of  the  same  length  in  the  afternoon, 
for  five  days  in  the  week,  with  proper  intermissions 
and  proper  attention  to  exceptional  cases,  will  not 
injure  any  one  or  prove  too  long  for  the  work  to  be 
done.  In  city  schools,  two  hours  and  a  half  or  three 
liours  for  each  of  the  two  daily  sessions  will  be 
quite  long  enough. 

In  all  these  estimates  it  is  understood  that  proper 
attention  is  paid  to  ventilation  and  to  certain  simple 
hygienic  rules  in   regard  to  sitting  and  standing. 


THE  PERMANENT  ORGANIZATION.       105 

The  singing  of  a  song  at  intervals  will  quicken  tlie 
life  of  the  school-room,  and  tend  to  promote  health. 
Short  gymnastic  exercises,  too,  may  be  given,  either 
with  some  simple  apparatus,  as  dumb-bells,  wands, 
or  rings,  or  without  it. 

Hard  and  prolonged  study  is  not  injurious  to 
health,  if  proper  exercise  is  regularly  taken  and 
proper  attention  is  paid  to  diet.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  only  in  this  way  that  good  scholars  can  be 
made.  Those  who  expect  to  become  good  scholars 
by  attending  school  three  hours  a  day  and  pre- 
paring no  lessons  out  of  school-hours  will,  most 
likely,  be  disappointed.  Ripe  culture  and  rich 
scholarship  are  attained  only  by  long  and  hard  work. 
If  evils  have  arisen  from  too  much  study, — and  no 
doubt  such  is  the  fact, — it  is  more  owing  to  the  weak, 
sickly  bodies  children  bring  with  them  to  school, 
and  to  the  unnatural  mode  of  life  which  so  many 
lead,  than  to  any  injury  the  work  of  the  school  is 
calculated  in  itself  to  produce.  The  evils  have  a 
seat  nearer  the  heart  of  society,  and  the  school 
merely  manifests  them.  Let  children  have  a  strong 
natural  constitution,  be  trained  to  work,  eat  proper 
food,  dress  in  a  healthy  manner,  sleep  well,  breathe 
pure  air,  shun  all  luxuries,  and,  my  word  for  it, 
neither  six  nor  ten  hours  a  day  of  hard  study  will 
do  them  injury.  But  if  they  are  permitted,  from 
the  age  of  five  upwards,  to  attend  parties  at  night, 
sip  wine,  smoke  cigars,  indulge  in  confections,  make 
love  to  babies  like  themselves,  eat  what  they  please, 
sleep  when  they  please,  and  go  where  they  please, 
all  expense  for  true  educational  purposes  might 
as  well  be  saved ;  for  under  such  management  the 


106  THE  ORGAKIZATION   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

shattered  constitution  cannot  endure  study  for  three 
hours  a  day,  even  if  the  race  itself  does  not  become 
extinct  or  helpless. 

4th.  The  Time  and  Length  of  Iniermissions. — No 
intermissions  are  needed  in  schools  where  the  pupils 
are  required  to  be  present  only  at  recitation-time. 
They  can  take  exercise  during  the  intervals  between 
the  recitations.  In  other  schools  the  number  of 
intermissions  will  depend  upon  the  age  of  the  pupils 
and  the  length  of  the  school-day.  Primary  Schools 
ought  to  have  an  intermission  at  least  every  hour. 
Children  in  such  schools  may  very  profitably  spend 
one-half  of  their  time  on  the  play-ground.  Schools 
composed  of  pupils  over  fourteen  years  of  age  should 
have  an  intermission  of  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a 
half  at  noon,  and  one  of  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
in  the  middle  of  both  the  forenoon  and  the  afternoon 
sessions.  The  intermission  at  noon  is  designed  for 
a  dining-hour  and  for  relaxation,  and  the  others 
may  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  play,  gymnastic 
exercises,  or  conversation. 

5th.  The  Opening  and  Closing  of  the  School — It  will 
promote  general  good  order,  as  well  as  be  beneficial 
in  itself,  to  have  a  proper  mode  of  opening  and 
closing  schools.  To  commence  a  day's  work  in  school 
abruptly,  or  to  close  it  in  confusion,  is  neither  in 
accordance  with  good  taste  or  good  judgment. 

An  appropriate  way  of  opening  a  school  is  as 
follows.  A  few  minutes — always  a  fixed  time — after 
the  pupils  have  been  called  to  assemble,  may  be 
allowed  them  to  get  seated;  and  then  the  roll  may 
be  called.  If  all  are  not  present,  the  exercises 
should  proceed  without  them,  during  which  no  one 


THE   PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  107 

Bhould  be  permitted  to  enter  the  school -room. 
"When  all  are  quietly  seated,  the  teacher  may  read 
a  hymn,  and  invite  the  pupils  to  join  him  in  singing 
it.  He  may  then  read  a  selected  chapter  from  the 
Bible,  or  have  the  pupils  all  engage  in  reading  a 
Bible-lesson.  When  agreeable  to  the  patrons  of 
the  school,  a  few  brief  comments  upon  the  text  may 
convey  valuable  information,  as  well  as  direct  the 
spirit  of  inquiry  towards  the  investigation  of  religious 
subjects.  A  short,  simple  prayer  may  follow,  the 
pupils  bending  forward  their  heads  in  token  of 
humility,  and  the  teacher,  returning  for  himself  and 
for  them  thanks  to  the  Good  Giver  for  all  blessings 
received,  and  petitioning  Him  for  blessings  coveted. 
If  the  form  of  oral  prayer  should  be  objectionable, 
especially  with  pupils  old  enough  to  appreciate  it, 
silent  prayer  may  be  adopted.  In  this  mode  of 
prayer,  both  teacher  and  pupils  bow  their  heads  and 
for  a  few  minutes  hold  silent  communion  with  their 
Maker.  The  ceremony  is  very  impressive.  Each 
one  is  taught  to  turn  his  own  heart  to  God,  and  thus 
devotional  feeling  is  cultivated  in  a  way  with  which 
the  strictest  sectarian  can  find  no  objection. 

The  Bible  should  be  used  as  a  text-book  on  reli- 
gion in  all  schools.  It  is  considered  as  the  word 
of  God  by  all  denominations.  There  are  serious 
objections  to  its  use  as  a  text-book  in  Reading;  but 
the  reading  of  it  at  a  special  time  by  teacher  or 
pupils,  as  previously  indicated,  both  creates  respect 
for  the  Book  and  love  for  the  truth  j+  inculcates. 

The  afternoon  session  may  be  opened  with  a 
cheerful  song.  If  deemed  expedient,  the  roll  may 
be  called,  as  at  the  opening  of  the  morning  session. 


108 


THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


To  save  the  time  required  to  call  the  roll  twice 
every  day,  an  arrangement  may  be  made  by  which 
pupils  can  report  their  own  attendance.  For  this 
purpose  let  a  board  of  suitable  size  be  procured, 
and  prepared  as  described  in  the  following  dia- 
gram : — 

THE  EEPOETEE. 


NAMES. 

ATTENDANCE. 

FORENOON. 

AFTERNOON. 

A                                          A 

Present. 

Tardy. 

Present. 

Tardy. 

►  B 

B 

•  B 

•  B 

The  board  may  be  painted  black,  the  cross  lines  white.  Small  pins  or  pegs  should 
be  made  to  fit  the  holes  B  B  B  B,  and  painted  green.  Boxes  to  hold  them  should  be 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  board.  The  words  used  at  the  heads  of  the  columns 
may  be  written  on  paper  and  pasted  upon  the  board.  The  names  of  the  pupils, 
plainly  written,  are  intended  to  be  kept  in  their  places  by  the  little  morocco  slips 
A  A.  Thus  ready  for  use,  this  article  of  apparatus,  which  we  have  called  a  Reporter, 
is  hung  against  the  wall  at  some  convenient  place,  and  each  pupil,  at  the  opening  of 
the  school,  morning  and  afternoon,  goes  to  it,  takes  a  pin  from  the  box,  and  puts  it 
in  the  designated  hole  opposite  his  name.  If  tardy,  he  places  the  pin  in  the  Tardy 
column ;  and,  if  absent,  the  holes  opposite  his  name  remain  vacant.  A  little  care  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  will  cause  the  whole  to  be  done  quietly,  quickly,  and  accu- 
rately, and  the  result  will  be  to  secure  more  regularity  of  attendance.  Where  the 
Bchool  is  a  mixed  one,  there  ought  to  be  two  boards : — one  for  the  girls,  and  one  for 
the  boys.  After  school,  the  teacher  may  transfer  the  report  to  his  Register,  and 
place  the  pins  again  in  the  box  for  use  next  morning. 


THE   PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  109 

A  school  may  be  nicely  closed  in  the  following 
manner.  The  school-work  and  school-business  for 
the  day  are  supposed  to  be  completed.  The  pupils 
are  ready  to  depart.  All  are  quiet.  The  teacher 
starts  an  appropriate  hymn  or  song,  and  all  sing  it 
together.  I  have  marked  the  effect  of  this  parting 
music  hundreds  of  times,  and  hundreds  of  times 
have  my  own  burdens  been  made  lighter  and  my 
own  heart  been  gladdened  by  it. 

At  the  tap  of  a  little  bell,  one  section  of  pupils 
rise ;  at  another,  they  pass  out,  and  a  second  rise ; 
at  a  third,  the  second  section  pass  out,  and  the  third 
rise ;  and  so  on  until  all  are  gone.  The  whole  ar- 
rangement is  very  simple,  and  is  carried  out  with 
little  noise  or  confusion. 

6th.  The  Calling  out  and  Dismissing  of  Classes, — It  is 
the  practice  of  some  teachers  to  announce  the  reci- 
tation of  a  certain  class,  and  allow  its  members  to 
take  their  places  with  little  regard  to  order,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  recitation  permit  them  to  return  to 
their  seats  in  the  same  confused  manner.  Such  a 
practice  is  apt  to  create  much  disturbance  in  the 
school-room,  and  sometimes  shakes  the  desks  and 
diverts  the  attention  of  those  not  members  of  the 
class  called  out. 

Other  teachers  call  out  and  dismiss  their  classes 
by  mentioning  the  name  or  number  of  each  member 
of  the  class  desired ;  but  this  plan,  while  it  avoids 
the  disorder  occasioned  by  the  preceding  one,  gene- 
rally requires  too  much  time. 

The  method  of  calling  out  and  dismissing  classes 
with  a  little  bell  is  probably  the  best  that  can  be 
adopted.     A  single  tap  of  the  bell  may  be  used  to 


110  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

call  the  attention  of  tlie  class,  a  second  may  indi- 
cate that  its  members  shall  rise  at  their  seats,  and 
a  third  that  they  shall  take  their  places  upon  the 
recitation-seats  or  repair  to  the  recitation-room. 
If  a  class  is  large  or  there  is  any  danger  of  confu- 
sion, it  may  be  divided  into  sections,  or  all  those 
occupying  one  seat  or  one  row  of  seats  can  come 
and  go  together. 

7th.  The  Granting  of  Special  Privileges, — Under  the 
head  of  Special  Privileges  are  classed  leaving  seats, 
speaking  to  one  another,  asking  questions  of  the 
teacher,  making  complaints  to  the  teacher,  and  re- 
ceiving help  from  the  teacher.  All  these  things  are 
sometimes  necessary  to  be  done ;  and,  if  no  time 
be  provided  when  they  may  be  done  lawfully,  some 
of  them  will  be  done  unlawfully  and  thus  interrupt 
the  regular  exercises  of  the  school. 

In  small  schools  with  considerate  pupils,  these 
privileges  need  not  be  special,  but  pupils  may  be 
permitted  to  enjoy  them  whenever  they  see  fit  to 
do  so,  and  the  school  will  be  but  slightly  disturbed 
thereby.  Pupils  may  not  desire  to  leave  their  seats 
or  to  speak  to  one  another ;  or,  if  they  do,  they  may 
carry  out  their  desire  in  such  a  manner  as  to  disturb 
no  one.  They  may  have  no  questions  to  ask  of  the 
teacher,  no  complaints  to  make  to  him ;  or,  if  they 
have,  they  may  seize  those  opportunities  at  which 
he  is  at  liberty  to  attend  to  them.  But  more  fre- 
quently it  will  be  found,  if  no  special  arrangement 
be  made  concerning  such  things,  trifling  as  they 
may  seem,  that  the  teacher  will  be  continually  inter- 
rupted by  requests  to  do  several  things  at  once,  and 
disorder  will  arise  in  the  school. 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  Ill 

The  best  arrangement  I  have  been  able  to  dis- 
cover by  which  to  dispose  of  the  granting  of  these 
special  privileges,  is  to  provide  suitable  times  at 
which  general  liberty  may  be  given  to  enjoy  them. 
At  these  times  the  regulations  of  a  school  in  session 
need  not  be  suspended,  but  merely  relaxed  so  far 
as  may  be  necessary  to  accomplish  the  end  in 
view.  'So  loud  talking  or  noise  can  be  permitted ; 
but  a  few  minutes — not  more  than  five— may  be 
granted  during  which  pupils  are  allowed  to  leave 
their  seats,  talk  together,  ask  questions  of  the 
teacher,  or  receive  help  from  him.  If  the  first 
intermission  be  fixed  about  the  middle  of  the  fore- 
noon session,  one  of  these  periods  of  suspended  busi- 
ness may  come  about  the  middle  of  the  time  between 
the  opening  of  the  school  and  the  first  intermission, 
another,  between  the  first  intermission  and  the  in- 
termission at  noon-time ;  and  the  afternoon  session 
may  be  divided  in  the  same  way.  If  this  arrange- 
ment be  adopted,  the  school-day  will  be  divided 
into  eight  periods  of  recitation,  three  of  inter- 
mission, and  four  of  suspension  of  the  regular 
work. 

Some  additional  suggestions  are  deemed  essential 
to  enable  the  young  teacher  to  operate  his  school 
upon  the  plan  now  proposed. 

The  granting  of  these  special  privileges  should  be 
refused,  unless  under  extraordinary  circumstances, 
at  all  times  except  during  the  periods  set  apart  for 
it.  ISTeither  should  the  granting  of  them  at  these 
periods  be  a  matter  of  course :  the  pupil  must  always 
indicate  his  want  by  holding  up  his  hand,  and  the 
teacher  must  judge  whether  it  is  proper  to  grant  it. 


112     THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

Pupils  should  not  be  suffered  to  leave  their  seats 
when  it  is  possible  for  the  teacher  to  wait  upon  them 
at  their  seats.  It  is  better,  generally,  for  the  teacher 
to  go  to  them  than  for  them  to  come  to  him. 

The  most  difficult  thing  to  regulate  among  pupils 
accorditig  to  the  plan  now  proposed,  or,  indeed,  ac- 
cording to  any  other,  is  their  speaking  to  one  an- 
other, or  whispering.  The  difficulty  will  be  greater 
if  the  school-room  is  not  well  seated.  If  the  pupils 
are  crowded  together  on  long  benches,  they  will  be 
much  more  liable  to  talk  than  if  placed  on  single 
seats  some  distance  apart.  Loud  talking  in  a  school- 
room during  school-hours  interrupts  the  school-work. 
Low  talking  is  apt  to  become  loud,  and,  if  not,  it  will 
most  probably  lead  to  a  waste  of  time.  It  is  some- 
times necessary,  however,  for  pupils  to  speak  to  one 
another ;  and  the  plan  just  explained  seems  to  afford 
ample  privileges  to  the  pupils  and  yet  protect  the 
interests  of  the  school.  If  the  teacher  has  reason 
to  think  that  his  pupils  do  not  waste  time  in  talking, 
or  if  they  do  not  trespass  upon  the  rights  of  others 
in  so  doing,  he  need  make  no  regulation  concerning 
the  matter.  He  may  even  allow  whispering  at  all 
times  if  he  can  succeed  in  securing  less  interruption 
to  the  school  and  less  trouble  to  himself  by  regu- 
lating it  than  by  totally  prohibiting  it  except  at 
certain  stated  times.  But  it  is  presumed  that  neither 
of  these  contingencies  will  often  happen,  and  that 
the  wisest  plan  is  to  make  the  provision  already  in- 
dicated. I  know  it  is  said  that,  if  the  teacher  allow 
whispering  whenever  it  is  necessary,  he  will  not  be 
bound  to  notice  every  supposed  violation  of  the  rule ; 
but  if  he  prohibit  it  wholly,  he  must  inflict  some 


THE   PERMANENT    ORGANIZATION.  113 

punishment  for  every  violation  noticed,  and  among 
talkative  children  this  punishment  has  to  be  inflicted 
so  often  that  the  task  becomes  a  very  unpleasant  one 
for  the  teacher  and  produces  little  good  effect  upon 
the  pupil.  This  difficulty  is  acknowledged,  and  is 
best  met  by  inflicting  upon  offenders  those  mild 
punishments  which  are  the  simple  consequences  of 
their  conduct,  as  the  forfeiture  of  seats,  or  seats 
upon  a  bench  provided  for  the  purpose,  where  they 
can  talk  to  no  one.  The  difficulty  will  grow  less 
as  good  habits  are  formed.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
objection  loses  much  of  its  force  when  it  is  seen 
that  ill  consequences  of  greater  magnitude  will  arise 
from  attempting  to  regulate  whispering,  for  the 
teacher  is  not  often  able  to  tell  for  himself  when 
his  rules  are  violated.  He  must  depend  mainly 
upon  the  pupil's  own  confession,  and  thus  may  hold 
out  a  temptation  to  falsehood  in  the  first  place,  and, 
in  the  second,  risks  the  danger  of  punishing  only 
those  who  are  honest,  while  those  who  are  willing  to 
speak  falsely  may  readily  escape.  It  is  not  supposed 
that  all  whispering  can  be  prevented  by  any  plan ; 
but  that  which  is  here  suggested,  if  carefully  fol- 
lowed, will,  it  is  hoped,  prove  to  be  generally  a 
satisfactory  mode  of  disposing  of  this  troublesome 
subject. 

Pupils  should  not  be  encouraged  to  make  com- 
plaints against  one  another ;  but  still  there  will  be 
occasions  when  such  complaints  ought  to  be  made, 
and  when  great  injustice  would  be  done  were  the 
teacher  not  to  hear  them.  Pupils,  too,  have  other 
grievances  than  those  which  come  from  wrongs 
done  to  them  by  their  school -fellows.     They  may 


114     THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

be  unwell,  their  books  may  be  lost  or  torn,  tbe 
apparatus  they  are  required  to  use  may  be  out  of 
repair,  their  seats  may  be  uncomfortable  from  heat, 
or  cold,  or  want  of  light,  and  for  the  removal  of 
these  and  other  like  causes  of  complaint,  the  pupils 
ought  to  be  allowed  at  some  time  to  apply  to  the 
teacher. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  amount  of  help 
a  teacher  should  render  his  pupils  in  preparing  their 
lessons.  It  will  be  admitted  upon  all  hands  that 
he  may  render  some  help ;  and,  if  he  occupy  all  the 
time  during  which,  four  times  a  day,  the  regular 
business  of  the  school  is  suspended,  in  doing  it,  he 
can  hardly  exceed  in  this  respect  the  safe  limits  of 
sound  policy. 

8th.  The  Transaction  of  General  Business. — More 
or  less  general  business  must  be  transacted  in  all 
schools.  E"otices  must  be  given,  appointments  must 
be  made,  regulations  must  be  introduced  and  ex- 
plained, classes  must  be  arranged,  and  various  items 
of  miscellaneous  business  must  be  attended  to,  and 
the  question  is  whether  the  teacher  will  have  a 
stated  time  for  doing  such  work,  or  whether  he  will 
do  it  whenever  it  occurs  to  him,  or  whenever  cir- 
cumstances suggest  it.  To  have  a  stated  time  for 
doing  it  is  much  the  best  plan,  because  in  that  way 
no  class  need  be  disturbed,  no  pupil  need  be  inter- 
rupted in  his  studies,  and  both  teacher  and  pupils 
will  be  more  at  liberty  to  attend  to  the  matter  in 
hand. 

The  most  appropriate  time  for  transacting  general 
business  is  immediately  preceding  the  closing  of 
the  school.     The  day's  work  is  then  done,  all  the 


THE  PERMANENT  ORGANIZATION.       115 

business  of  the  day  can  then  be  settled  up,  the 
necessary  arrangements  for  the  morrow  can  then  be 
made,  and  the  teacher  can  rest  with  no  unfinished 
business  on  his  mind  to  distract  his  attention  or  to 
absorb  his  time. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  convenient  to  note  during 
the  day  such  items  of  business  as  he  desires  to  bring 
before  the  school,  and  at  the  appointed  time  he  can 
attend  to  the  whole  at  once. 

9th.  The  Administration  of  Discipline, — ^Elsewhere, 
under  the  head  of  School-Government,  will  be  dis- 
cussed the  subject  of  School-Ofifences  and  their 
punishment.  Here  it  must  be  taken  for  granted 
that  there  will  be  offences  and  that  there  must  be 
punishments ;  and  the  question  to  be  determined  is 
when  the  administration  of  discipline  shall  take 
place. 

Individuals  off*ending  against  the  rules  of  the 
school  may  be  corrected  either  privately  or  publicly. 
Private  correction  is  very  much  the  best  in  a  vast 
majority  of  cases;  but  very  rarely,  and  with  peculiar 
oflences,  the  correction  must  be  made  before  the 
whole  school. 

If  the  correction  is  to  be  made  publicly  and  the 
ofi*ence  be  a  trifling  one,  it  may  be  done  during  the 
time  appropriated  for  general  business ;  but  if  the 
offfence  be  a  very  grave  one,  a  more  suitable  time 
could  not  be  selected  than  immediately  after  the 
completion  of  the  whole  day's  work.  In  anticipa- 
tion of  the  time  that  will  be  taken  up  in  administer- 
ing the  contemplated  discipline,  the  afternoon  exer- 
cises may  be  somewhat  shortened.  The  reason  this 
hour  should  be  fixed  upon  is  because  it  is  unlikely 

12 


IIG  THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

that  after  the  infliction  of  punishment  or  the  arous- 
ing of  strong  feeling  either  teacher  or  pupils  will 
be  fit  for  their  usual  duties.  Some  teachers  dis- 
pense with  one  of  the  intermissions  and  occupy 
the  time  in  the  administration  of  the  needed  dis- 
cipline ;  but  the  fact  that  a  privilege  is  thus  taken 
away  from  the  pupils,  may  create  prejudice  against 
the  teacher  or  his  mode  of  punishment. 

It  is  very  seldom  that  a  teacher  should  interrupt 
his  work  to  correct  an  offence.  An  uplifted  finger, 
a  shake  of  the  head,  a  tap  of  the  bell,  the  quiet  re- 
moval of  a  pupil  to  a  place  where  he  has  less 
opportunity  to  do  mischief,  may  indicate  to  the 
offender  that  the  teacher  notices  him;  but  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  nature  of  the  offence,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  punishment  for  it,  should  be  delayed 
until  an  appropriate  time  is  found  for  attending  to 
the  matter.  There  may  occur  an  open  outbreak  in 
the  school,  as  when  two  pupils  quarrel,  or  some 
public  opposition  to  the  teacher,  as  when  a  pupil 
refuses  to  obey  him ;  but  even  in  such  cases,  while 
the  disturbance  must  be  immediately  quieted,  and 
obedience  at  once  enforced,  the  final  settlement  of  the 
difficulty  should  be  postponed  until  all  parties  have 
had  time  for  reflection,  when  it  can  be  made  with 
much  more  satisfactory  results. 

"When  discipline  is  administered  privately,  it 
may  be  done  whenever  the  teacher  has  leisure,  or 
whenever  there  is  least  danger  of  being  interrupted. 
It  may  be  done  at  one  of  the  intermissions,  before 
or  after  school,  in  the  pupil's  room,  or  at  his  home 
in  the  presence  of  his  parents,  or  in  the  office  of 
the  teacher. 


THE   PERMANENT   ORGANIZATION.  117 

It  seems  proper  to  conclude  this  chapter  with  the 
presentation  of  a  form  for  a  School-Programme. 
This  form  is  more  simple  and  more  complete  than 
any  other  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  and  readily 
admits  modification  to  suit  circumstances. 

After  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  pages, 
this  Programme  will  not  require  much  further  ex- 
planation. A  few  observations,  however,  must  still 
be  made.  When  there  are  but  one  room  and  one 
teacher,  of  course  the  last  two  columns  will  be  un- 
necessary. They  are  intended  to  exhibit  the  form 
of  a  Programme  for  a  graded  school  in  which 
several  teachers  are  employed.  The  selecting  of 
the  classes  which  should  recite  during  each  Pecita- 
tion-Period,  and  the  fixing  of  the  length  of  each 
recitation,  are  left  to  the  teacher,  who  must  be 
governed  by  the  circumstances  of  his  school.  Seve- 
ral classes  may  be  heard  by  the  teacher  during  each 
Period;  or,  if  there  are  more  teachers  than  one,  by 
each  of  them.  If  teachers  hear  different  classes  on 
different  days,  it  can  readily  be  so  stated  in  the  Pro- 
gramme. Special  arrangements  must  be  made  for 
such  general  exercises  as  reviews,  lectures,  &c. 


118 


THE    ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


PROGRAMME. 


TIME. 

EXERCISE. 

BOOM. 

TEACHER. 

Opening  Exercise. 

First  Recitation-Period. 

Regular  Business  Suspended. 

Second  Recitation-Period. 

Forenoon  Intermission. 

Third  Recitation-Period. 

Regular  Business  Suspended. 

Fourth  Recitation-Period. 

Noon  Intermission. 

Fifth  Recitation-Period. 

Regular  Business  Suspended. 

Sixth  Recitation-Period. 

Afternoon  Intermission. 

Seventh  Recitation-Period. 

Regular  Business  Suspended. 

Eighth  Recitation-Period. 

General  Business. 

Closing  Exercises. 

CHAPTER  m. 

THE  EMPLOYMENTS  OF  THE  SCHOOl.. 

In  order  to  secure  an  economical  expenditure  of 
strength  and  eflfort,  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
understand  what  constitute  the  legitimate  employ- 
ments of  his  pupils  while  in  school,  and  in  what 
consists  the  nature  of  these  employments.  To  the 
presentation  of  this  important  information  this 
chapter  will  be  devoted. 

The  employments  of  the  school  may  readily  be 
arranged  into  three  classes,  and  the  subject-matter 
before  us  will  therefore  be  treated  of  in  three 
sections,  as  follows : — 

L  Study. 
n.  Recitation. 
m.  Exercise. 

I.  Study. — Study  is  the  most  important  employ- 
ment of  the  school.  "Without  it  there  can  be  but 
little  progress  in  learning.  The  objects  of  study 
ard  the  means  of  securing  them  must  therefore  be 
carefully  investigated  by  the  teacher.  The  follow- 
ing arrangement  of  topics  will  give  method  to  tho 
discussion: — 


12* 


119 


120         the  employments  of  the  school. 

1.  The  Objects  of  Study. 

2.  The  Incentives  to  Study. 

3.  The  Modes  of  Study. 

4.  The  Characteristics  of  the  Student. 

1.  The  Objects  of  Study. — The  ultimate  object 
of  all  education  is  the  attainment  of  the  highest 
possible  worth;  or,  as  Kant  expressed  it,  **to 
develop  in  each  individual  all  the  perfection  of 
which  he  is  susceptible."  When  God  created  man 
in  His  own  image,  and  gave  him  powers  and  capa- 
bilities but  little  lower  than  the  angels,  He  intended 
that  he  should  live  worthy  of  his  high  estate ;  and 
the  great  central  end  of  all  education  is  the  attain- 
ment of  that  manhood  which  God  designed  for  man, 
•  and  which  was  the  ideal  prototype  after  which  He 
created  him. 

More  particularly,  the  following  may  be  named 
as  the  ends  of  study : — 

1st.  Knowledge, 
2d.   Discipline, 
3d.   Aspiration. 
4th.  Efficiency. 

The  Accumulation  of  Knowledge  is  an  End  of  Study. 
—Knowledge  may  be  desired  for  discipline  or  for  the 
purposes  of  life;  but  it  should  be  desired  also  for  its 
cwn  sake.  Each  individual  is  conscious  of  a  desire 
to  know;  and  the  mere  fact  of  possessing  knowledge, 
considered  independently  of  any  use  to  which  it 
may  be  put,  furnishes  the  highest  pleasure  to  the 
possessor.  Nature  has  everjrwhere  truth  for  the 
intellect  and  beauty  for  the  heart.  The  llTaturalist 
finds  them  in  rocks,  and  plants,  and  insects,  and 


STUDY.  121 

animals ;  the  Linguist  finds  them  in  the  wondrous 
powers  and  wondrous  forms  of  human  speech;  the 
Mathematician  finds  them  in  the  mystic  properties 
of  numbers  and  of  forms ;  the  Metaphysician  finds 
them  in  those  higher  laws,  pure  as  they  came  from 
the  God-mind,  which  condition  all  things ;  the  His- 
torian finds  them  in  watching  the  great  drama 
which  men  are  playing  upon  the  world's  stage;  and 
all  are  made  nobler  and  better  in  their  contempla- 
tion. A  true  lover  of  knowledge  seeks  it  for  itself, 
seeks  it  because  God  made  his  soul  crave  it,  seeks 
it  to  embalm  it  in  his  heart  forever.  The  love  of 
truth,  whether  found  in  nature  or  in  the  Bible,  is  a 
holy  love ;  and  happy  the  teacher  who  can  implant 
it  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils. 

Discipline  is  an  End  of  Study, — The  human  body 
in  infancy  is  weak,  it  needs  to  be  invigorated  and 
toughened;  the  human  intellect  is  feeble,  it  needs 
to  be  developed  and  strengthened;  the  human  pas- 
sions are  wild  and  rash,  they  need  to  be  restrained 
and  guided;  the  human  will  is  fitful  and  perverse, 
it  needs  to  be  trained  to  docility  and  educated  to 
husband  and  direct  its  power.  This  invigorating 
and  toughening  of  the  body,  developing  and 
strengthening  of  the  intellect,  restraining  and 
guiding  the  passions,  training  and  educating  the 
will,  is  discipline;  and  it  is  one  of  the  highest  aims 
of  study  to  secure  it. 

The  circumstances  that  surround  the  race  seem 
wisely  designed  to  promote  the  ends  both  of  physi- 
cal and  mental  discipline.  The  earth  yields  her 
fruits  only  after  hard  culture;  and  her  untamed 
forests,  her  barren  wastes,  her  high  mountains,  her 


122  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

rapid  rivers,  her  stormy  seas,  and  her  rocky  shores, 
present  such  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  human 
civilization,  that  the  hand  of  man  is  trained  to 
cunning  and  his  head  schooled  to  reflection  in  the 
eftbrt  to  overcome  them.  What  powerful  influences 
prompt  the  agriculturist  to  sow  and  reap;  the 
manufacturer  to  fashion  the  raw  materials  of  nature 
into  forms  useful  and  beautiful;  the  mechanic  to 
invent  things  new  and  strange,  and  to  make  them ; 
the  merchant  to  send  his  ships  forth  upon  the  path- 
less ocean  on  the  mission  of  commerce! — and  all 
these  influences  are  educational,  toughening  muscle 
and  awakening  mind. 

Besides,  impelled  by  curiosity,  man  looks  up  to 
the  heavens,  down  into  the  earth,  within  himself,  and 
everywhere  he  finds  his  eye  dazzled  with  the  grandeur 
of  creation,  his  head  puzzled  with  the  riddles  he  is 
asked  to  read,  and  his  heart  warmed  with  the  wisdom 
and  goodness  which  are  displayed  in  all  things, — the 
little  as  well  as  the  great.  The  mother  places  before 
her  infant  child  a  glittering  toy,  and  her  mother's 
heart  is  gladdened  when  he  takes  his  first  step 
towards  it.  This  first  step  a  child  takes  in  learning 
to  walk,  exemplifies  nature's  method  of  discipline. 
God  has  adapted  the  creation  to  man, — ^the  objective 
and  the  subjective  correlate, — outer  attractions  an- 
swer to  inner  impulses, — that  the  end  of  discipline 
might  be  attained. 

It  is  for  teachers  to  aid  nature's  efibrts.  Human 
nature  must  be  made  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible. 
"Be  ye  perfect,  even  as  your  Father  in  heaven  is 
perfect,"  says  Christ;  and  all  created  things  respond, 
"Be  perfect."     Education  is  desirable  to  fit  us  for 


STUDY.  123 

the  ordinary  business  of  life;  but  its  aim  is  higher 
when  it  imparts  a  broad,  generous  culture  to  all  our 
powers.  We  want  first  to  be  strong  men,  and  after- 
wards good  citizens. 

Aspiration  is  an  End  of  Study, — ^ISTothing  tends  more 
to  insure  the  young  against  the  temptations  of  a  low 
sensualism,  to  lead  them  away  from  an  indulgence 
in  debasing  pleasures,  than  an  elevated  ideal  of  the 
purpose  of  life  and  of  the  worth  of  the  human 
soul.  The  young  should  be  taught  to  aim  high,  to 
desire  to  accomplish  something  noble,  to  appreciate 
truly  the  dignity  of  the  position  and  the  nature 
of  man.  The  formation  of  an  ideal  conception  of 
human  perfection,  and  an  earnest  longing  to  realize 
that  conception  in  life,  is  what  I  mean  by  aspiration ; 
and  surely  study  is  worth  much  even  if  it  only 
enable  us  to  triumph  over  the  difliculties  of  a  long 
journey  through  this  wilderness  world,  and  see  the 
Promised  Land  from  afar  off. 

A  person  who  does  not  realize  the  value  of  a 
thing  will  not  make  the  most  earnest  efforts  to  ob- 
tain it ;  neither  will  a  coveted  prize,  if  considered 
beyond  his  reach,  call  forth  his  best  exertions. 
Aspiration  must  pioneer  all  noble  effort;  and  study 
lifts  men  up  to  higher,  broader  views  of  life,  and 
duty,  and  God.  The  scholar  may  indulge  in  hopes 
and  anticipations  wholly  unknown  to  the  ignorant. 
The  tentacula  of  his  mind  reach  far  out  and  up. 
His  feet  may  rest  upon  the  earth  like  those  of 
other  men;  but  his  head  is  up  among  the  clouds, 
with  an  ever-widening  prospect  around  him.  His 
ideals  lend  a  charm  to  life  in  this  world,  and  light 
up  his  bright  pathway  to  another.     It  is  an  object 


124  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE  SCHOOL. 

of  study,  therefore,  to  elevate  these  ideals,  and  to 
stir  up  in  the  soul  higher  hopes  and  nobler  aspira- 
tions. 

Efficiency  is  an  End  of  Study. — W"e  study  to  obtain 
knowledge,  to  discipline  our  powers,  to  elevate  our 
aspirations ;  but  we  can  accomplish  little  for  our 
fellow-men  unless  we  can  thereby  make  ourselves 
more  efficient  in  the  performance  of  duty.  Know- 
ledge latent  in  the  mind  can  benefit  only  the  pos- 
sessor; strong  muscles  unused  will  do  no  work; 
beautiful  ideals  unpictured  will  attract  no  worship- 
pers. Study,  then,  should  aim  to  make  all  the 
forces  of  our  nature  available  for  the  interests  of 
society.  The  talent  of  acquired  lore,  of  muscular 
or  mental  discipline,  of  divine  imagination,  must 
not  be  hidden  in  a  napkin  and  buried  in  the  earth. 
The  man  of  science  has  no  right  to  conceal  the 
truth  he  knows ;  no  Hercules  can  allow  himself  rest 
while  labors  remain  to  be  performed;  no  artist  can 
refuse  to  express  in  stone  or  on  canvas  the  ideal 
image  born  in  his  own  breast;  and  the  world  is 
entitled  to  all  the  poetry  and  music  inspired  by 
genius,  and  to  all  the  revelations  from  God  to  man 
which  the  holy  prophets  have  ever  uttered.  Each 
man,  in  his  sphere,  is  bound  to  do  what  he  can.  It 
requires  the  economical  expenditure  of  all  the  world's 
forces  to  do  the  world's  work.  All  must  hitch 
themselves  to  the  great  car  and  give  their  pull,  or 
put  their  shoulder  to  the  great  wheel  and  give  their 
push. 

It  is  one  of  the  objects  of  study  to  make  us  more 
efficient, — efficient  in  all  we  undertake  to  do.  Know- 
ledge gained  should  be  distributed,  the  force  ac- 


STUDY.  125 

quired  by  discipline  should  be  judiciously  expended, 
and  the  ideal  pictures  of  the  imagination  should  be 
displayed,  that  all  may  profit  by  them.  Knowledge 
should  not  only  be  distributed,  but  used.  It  may  be 
made  to  aid  in  all  kinds  of  business,  to  prevent  the 
impositions  practiced  upon  the  ignorant  by  the  un- 
principled, to  correct  the  fears  and  the  follies  of  the 
superstitious,  to  assist  in  the  work  of  morality  and 
religion,  to  ennoble  the  pleasures  of  mankind:  these 
and  other  such  uses  has  knowledge,  and  the  scholar 
must  so  use  it,  or  he  fails  to  appreciate  the  gift,  and 
wrongs  the  Giver. 

"While  it  is  maintained  that  efficiency  is  one  of 
the  objects  of  study,  it  will  be  noticed  that  by  this 
is  not  meant  mere  efficiency  in  buying,  selling,  and 
managing  affairs ;  but  any  efficiency  is  meant  which 
performs  labor,  either  with  head  or  hand,  adds  new 
facts  or  principles  to  science,  or  presents  purer  ideals 
for  the  admiration  of  mankind, — any  efficiency, 
indeed,  which  tends  to  make  society  better,  wiser, 
or  more  happy. 

It  must  be  added  that  the  object  of  study  is  some- 
times an  improper  one.  If  an  education  is  sought 
for  the  gratification  of  pride,  or  with  the  predomi- 
nant desire  of  gaining  popularity,  reputation,  power, 
or  position,  it  both  degrades  the  seeker  and  the 
thing  sought. 

2.  The  Incentives  to  Study. — Taking  it  for 
granted  that  pupils  are  surrounded  with  circum- 
stances favorable  to  study,  such  as  a  convenient 
time,  a  proper  place,  and  a  suitable  opportunity, — 
taking  it  for  granted,  too,  that  the  teacher  fully 
understands  what  are  the  objects  of  study, — an  in- 


126  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   TUB    SCHOOL. 

quirj  is  now  in  place  as  to  the  incentives  that  are 
best  calculated  to  induce  pupils  to  perform  their 
school-work.  We  do  not  exert  ourselves  without  a 
motive;  and  just  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the 
motive  will  be  the  force  of  the  executive  effort.  A 
miller  might  as  well  expect  his  mill  to  run  without 
water  or  steam,  or  a  sailor  his  ship  to  move  with- 
out wind  or  current,  as  a  teacher  to  look  for  his 
pupils  to  accomplish  any  worthy  thing  in  study 
without  being  actuated  by  motives.  The  teacher 
who  induces  his  pupils  to  work  diligently  must 
understand  human  nature, — must  be  able  to  analyze 
the  motives  that  impel  mankind  to  exertion,  and 
call  into  requisition  those  which  are  proper  to  be 
employed  in  the  work  of  education ;  and  to  do  this 
skilfully,  no  small  degree  of  well-applied  effort  is 
necessary. 

Before  proceeding  to  name  the  different  incentives 
to  study  which  have  been  made  use  of  in  school, 
and  to  criticize  them,  it  is  deemed  well  to  state  the 
most  important  principles  by  which  it  is  intended 
to  test  them. 

Incentives  to  study  ought  to  be  continuous  in 
their  influences.  They  ought  not  mei-ely  to  spur 
pupils  on  to  the  attainment  of  an  object  and  then 
lose  their  potency. 

Incentives  to  study  ought  to  arise  from  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  and  the  circumstances  connected 
with  learning  it.  They  should  be  natural,  not  arti- 
ficial ;  real,  not  fictitious. 

Incentives  to  study  are  best  when  they  are  founded 
upon  the  positive  qualities  of  each  pupil,  and  are  not 
the  result  of  a  comparison  of  one  pupil  with  another. 


STUDY.  127 

It  is  unwise  to  encourage  a  disposition  in  pupils 
which  may  lead  them  to  rejoice  in  the  ill  success 
of  their  classmates. 

All  rewards  when  presented  as  incentives  to  study 
should  be  given  with  reference  to  effort,  and  not 
with  reference  to  natural  ability. 

All  rewards  when  given  as  incentives  to  study 
should  be  calculated  to  promote  the  greatest  good 
of  the  largest  number. 

The  great  end  of  all  study  is  human  perfection ; 
and  none  but  noble  motives  can  lead  to  the  attain- 
ment of  so  noble  an  end. 

In  the  discussion  of  Incentives  to  Study,  we  will 
consider — 

1st.  Incentives  of  doubtful  Propriety. 
2d.  Proper  Incentives, 

1st.  Incentives  of  doubtful  Propriety, — The  principal 
incentives  to  study  about  the  use  of  which  a  differ- 
rence  of  opinion  exists  are — Prizes;  Merit- 31arks ; 
Eimdation;  Fear  of  Punishment;  Shame;  and  Pidi- 
cule. 

Prizes. — Under  the  general  head  of  Prizes  it  is 
intended  to  include  all  those  material  things  wh^ch 
are  presented  m  institutions  of  learning  to  such 
students  as  are  supposed  to  have  made  more  pro- 
gress in  their  studies,  or  are  thought  to  be  more 
deserving,  than  their  fellow-students.  In  some 
schools,  medals  are  used  for  this  purpose ;  in  others, 
scholarships,  books,  pictures,  money,  and  privileges 
of  different  kinds.  Upon  the  question  as  to  whether 
prizes  should  be  used  as  incentives  to  study  in  schools, 
a  warm   controversy  has  been  carried   on  among 

13 


128  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OE   THE    SCHOOL. 

teachers  and  others  interested  in  education ;  and  it 
is  presumed  to  be  best  to  state  here  the  chief  argu- 
ments on  both  sides,  as  a  basis  for  the  conclusion 
which  will  be  announced. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  prizes  are — 
That  long-continued  experiment  has  shown  that  prizes 
are  useful. — Giving  prizes  to  successful  students  is  a 
custom  which  has  prevailed  in  schools  and  colleges 
for  centuries,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 
It  prevails  now  in  a  vast  number  of  institutions  of 
learning  of  different  kinds  and  grades.  The  argu- 
ment is  that  a  custom  so  long-continued  and  so 
wide-spread  must  have  some  advantages,  or  it 
would  have  been  long  since  abandoned.  Franklin 
approved  of  prizes ;  and  the  Franklin  Medals  are 
still  given  in  the  public  schools  of  Boston.  Sir 
William  Hamilton  recently  advocated  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  system  of  prizes  into  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  in  the  expectation  that  it  would  revive 
therein  the  languishing  interest  in  certain  depart- 
ments of  learning. 

That  the  expectation  of  gaining  a  prize  increases  the 
interest  in  study, — It  is  admitted  by  all  that  the  stu- 
dent who  works  merely  to  gain  a  prize  is  not  actu- 
ated by  the  highest  motive ;  but  a  prize  is  something 
tangible, — something  that  his  friends  and  the  public 
can  see ;  and  he  is  accordingly  stimulated  to  exertion. 
Besides,  the  teacher  can  make  it  understood  that  the 
prize  is  representative  in  its  character, — that  it 
represents  correct  deportment,  hard  study,  or  his 
own  or  the  giver's  approbation  of  it.  There  are 
natural  differences  in  mental  capacity.  Some  pupils 
surpass  others  in  study,  just  as  some  gain  the  prizes 


STUDY.  12& 

of  life  while  others  lose  them.  Teachers  and  class- 
mates  will  select  the  most  deserving  scholars,  and 
bestow  upon  them  in  some  form  their  congratula- 
tions. The  bestowment  of  a  prize  is,  in  such  cases, 
merely  a  public  attestation  of  their  good  opinion, 
and  it  will  be  preserved  as  a  happy  memorial  of 
their  approbation.  No  one  will  maintain  that  a 
pupil  may  not  strive  to  obtain  the  good  opinion  of 
teacher,  fellow-students,  or  the  public;  and  can 
there  be  any  serious  objection  to  the  expression  of 
that  approbation  in  the  form  of  a  prize  ?  To  secure 
this  good  will  and  this  public  testimonial  of  it, 
pupils  will  ^udy  diligently,  and  with  more  interest 
than  they  would  be  likely  otherwise  to  evince. 
Offered  prizes  have  a  very  marked  influence  upon 
the  studies  of  the  younger  classes  of  pupils,  since 
they  are  incapable  of  appreciating  the  highest  mo- 
tives. 

That  the  prospect  of  ohtainiiig  a  prize  promotes  profit- 
able competition, — The  pupils  composing  a  class  com- 
pete for  a  prize.  Their  relative  merits  must  be 
judged,  and  the  prize  be  awarded  to  the  most 
worthy.  In  order  to  attain  the  highest  position  in 
the  class,  there  must  be  effort  made ;  and,  as  this 
effort  gives  strength,  the  competition,  it  is  main- 
tained, is  profitable.  The  management  of  a  class 
under  such  circumstances  may  be  a  delicate  matter ; 
great  danger  may  exist  that  feelings  of  envy  or  jea- 
lousy will  be  engendered  in  the  contest;  but  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  a  teacher  who  can  so  manage  his 
class  as  to  avoid  this  danger,  and  make  the  compe- 
tition fair  and  honorable  and  comprehensive  enough 
to  embrace  the  whole  class,  may  secure  a  rapid  ad- 


130  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

vancement  in  study.  The  actuating  incentive  may 
be  the  prize ;  but,  in  the  struggle  to  obtain  it,  know- 
ledge is  acquired  and  Strength  developed ;  and  these 
are  among  the  most  important  objects  of  education. 

The  following  arguments  may  be  advanced  against 
the  use  of  prizes  in  schools: — 

That  the  pursuit  of  the  prize  causes  pupils  to  overlook 
higher  motives  to  study, — That  there  are  higher  motives 
which  may  be  used  as  incentives  to  study  than  the 
desire  to  obtain  a  medal  or  a  sum  of  money,  every- 
body admits.  Does  the  pursuit  of  a  prize  cause 
pupils  to  overlook  them  ?  It  must  be  confessed  that 
such  an  effect  is  frequently  produced.*  A  prize  is 
something  that  can  be  seen ;  it  can  be  held  up  before 
the  gaze  of  an  admiring  public;  and  it  is  well  cal- 
culated, therefore,  to  obscure  the  more  substantial 
good  which  it  is  supposed  to  represent.  A  pupil 
who  is  striving  for  a  prize  talks  about  it  in  the  day- 
time and  dreams  of  it  at  night.  He  forgets  all  about 
the  worth  of  knowledge  and  the  duty  of  self-per- 
fection, sees  nothing  but  the  prize,  and  hears  nothing 
but  the  plaudits  that  will  greet  its  happy  recipient. 

This  transfer  of  incentives  to  study  from  higher 
to  lower,  from  real  and  permanent  to  fictitious  and 
transitory,  has  a  tendency  to  degrade  the  student. 
Nothing  adds  so  much  dignity  of  character  to  the 
seeker  after  knowledge  as  the  consciousness  that  his 
object  is  a  noble  one.  Full  of  this  thought,  all  his 
actions  are  high-toned  and  manly;  and  as  he  triumphs 
over  difficulties,  and  obtains  the  rich  fruit  of  his  toil, 
he  feels  that  high  pleasure  which  comes  from  know- 
ing that  he  has  fought  a  brave  battle  and  won  a 
proud  victory  without  doing  harm  to  any  one. 


STUDY.  131 

It  quite  often  happens,  too,  that  the  pupils  who 
win  prizes,  having  accomplished  what  they  had 
striven  for,  cease  their  eflbrts  and  abandon  hard 
study.  Stimulated  by  the  hope  of  gaining  the  prize 
they  may  have  worked  diligently ;  but,  that  stimulus 
removed,  their  interest  in  study  decreases,  and  they 
soon  become  indifferent  to  it.  This  is  an  unfor- 
tunate condition  in  which  to  leave  pupils.  It 
promises  little  for  the  futare;  and  it  seems  better  to 
rely  most  upon  those  natural  rewards  which  repay 
the  labor  of  the  student,  and  which,  though  con- 
stantly used,  are  always  increasing  in  value. 

Careful  teaching  may  induce  pupils  to  think  of 
prizes  as  the  tangible  representatives  of  the  real 
rewards  which  they  hope  to  gain ;  and,  if  so,  they 
can  be  used  with  little  danger.  Few  teachers,  how- 
ever, can  hope  to  possess  such  skill,  and,  if  they  do 
possess  it,  they  will  scarcely  need  the  help  of  prizes 
to  induce  their  pupils  to  study. 

That  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  giving  of  'prizes 
are  confined  to  a  few, — If  each  pupil  in  a  class  could 
receive  some  testimonial  fairly  proportioned  to  his 
effort  and  success  in  study  and  his  deportment  as  a 
student,  there  could  be  little  objection  to  such  a 
system.  It  would  conform  to  nature's  plan  in  prin- 
ciple, and,  being  more  tangible,  might  exert  a  bene- 
ficial inffuence,  especially  with  pupils  in  Primary 
schools.  But  the  system  of  giving  prizes  as  generally 
practised  is  something  wholly  different.  The  prizes 
for  which  a  class  or  school  competes  are  not  often 
very  numerous, — sometimes  three  or  four,  but  more 
frequently,  perhaps,  a  single  one.  They  are  be- 
stowed, not  with  regard  to  positive  attainments,  but 

13* 


132  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

with  regard  to  relative  position.  There  may  "be  a 
very  slight  difference  between  two  competitors;  both 
may  be  almost  equally  deserving;  and  yet  one  may 
obtain  the  prize,  while  the  other  is  rewarded  per- 
haps by  pity  for  his  ill  success.  By  the  wonderful 
principle  of  compensation,  the  apparent  loser  may 
be  the  real  gainer ;  but  this  does  not  save  the  dis- 
tinction made  from  the  accusation  of  being  arbi- 
trary and  invidious. 

Suppose  a  class  competing  for  a  prize,  and  observe 
the  result.  At  first  the  attention  of  the  whole  class 
may  be  directed  to  the  prize,  and  a  few  good  recita- 
tions may  be  the  consequence ;  but  very  soon  some 
will  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  prize  cannot  be 
obtained  by  them,  then  others  will  arrive  at  the 
same  conclusion,  and  afterwards  still  more,  until  the 
contest  is  narrowed  down  to  a  very  few  who  strive 
on  to  the  end.  The  effect  is  that  those  who  lose  the 
hope  of  obtaining  the  prize  can  with  great  difficulty 
be  induced  to  study  at  all,  and  seem  to  think  that, 
having  abandoned  the  race  themselves,  their  only 
duty  is  to  watch  the  runners  until  they  reach  the 
goal  and  the  winner  receive  the  prize.  Besides, 
those  who  continue  the  contest  are  generally  such 
pupils  as  need  no  stimulus  to  exertion.  They  are 
more  likely  to  over-work  themselves  than  to  work 
too  little.  The  treatment  they  need  in  such  circum- 
stances is  rather  sedative  than  stimulating.  Thus 
the  competition  excited  by  the  offer  of  a  prize  is 
apt  to  injure  both  the  quick  and  the  dull,  the  in- 
dustrious and  the  lazy,  one  class  boing  induced  to 
work  too  much  and  the  other  being  left  with  little 
inducement  to  work  at  all. 


STUDY.    ■  133 

That  there  is  great  difficulty  in  awarding  prizes  justly. 
— K  a  prize  be  awarded  unjustly,  it  will  do  harm  to 
all  concerned, — to  him  who  receives  it,  to  him  to 
whom  it  rightfully  belonged,  and  to  the  school- 
authorities  who  committed  the  error.  The  danger 
of  doing  some  injustice  in  awarding  prizes  is  very 
great.  Data  furnished  by  recitations  and  examina- 
tions are  subject  to  many  errors;  and  when  the 
amount  of  effort  made,  the  facilities  of  study  en- 
joyed, and  the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  pupils, 
are  taken  into  the  account,  there  are  so  many  un- 
known quantities  involved  in  the  problem  that  the 
shrewdest  moral  algebraist  could  scarcely  solve  it. 
Those  who  make  the  best  recitations  or  appear  to 
the  most  advantage  at  examinations  are  not  always 
the  finest  scholars  or  the  most  deserving  students. 
Some  pupils  have  superior  natural  ability,  which 
enables  them  to  do  with  ease  what  others  can  ac- 
complish only  by  hard  work;  some  receive  private 
help,  have  access  to  libraries,  enjoy  ample  time  for 
study,  and  are  allowed  a  pleasant  place  to  study  in, 
while  others  must  help  themselves,  and  study  at 
hours  stolen  from  sleep.  The  prize  should  be  given 
to  the  most  worthy.  Teachers  may  be  able  to  make 
the  right  selection,  but  all  must  admit  the  liability 
and  the  danger  of  mistakes.  True,  all  praise  and 
censure  involve  the  same  liability  to  mistakes.  A 
teacher  may  commend  the  bad  and  censure  the  good ; 
but,  while  this  should  teach  him  to  be  careful  as  to 
whom  he  praises  and  with  whom  he  finds  fixult,  yet 
in  so  doing  he  generally  commits  no  public  wrong, 
and  he  can  oftentimes  repair  the  private  one  he  has 
inadvertently  done. 


134  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

That  unJcind  and  jealous  feelings  are  apt  to  arise 
among  those  who  contend  for  a  prize. — It  is  not  uncom- 
mon, when  the  contest  for  a  prize  becomes  close 
and  confined  to  a  few,  that  the  other  members  of 
the  class  drop  study,  divide  into  parties,  and  attach 
themselves  to  the  fortunes  of  one  of  the  competi- 
tors. In  such  unfortunate  circumstances,  there  are 
apt  to  be  exhibited  the  feelings  usual  at  wrestling- 
matches  and  horse-races, — there  are  apt  to  be  those 
who  rejoice  equally  at  the  success  of  their  hero  and 
the  failure  of  his  adversary ;  and  if  the  participants 
themselves  do  not  sympathize  with  such  feelings, 
they  have  more  control  over  their  passions  than  most 
students  possess. 

7^hat  a  prize  is  a  fictitious  and  arbitrary  reward  for 
diligence  in  study  or  propriety  in  conduct, — In  nature's 
system  all  honest  efltbrt  is  properly  rewarded.  Na- 
ture is  a  prompt  paymaster,  and  she  rewards  men 
liberally  for  every  good  thought  they  think  and  for 
every  good  deed  they  do.  As  the  sower  prepares 
his  field,  scatters  his  seed,  and  expects  his  crop,  so 
all  good  thoughts  and  good  words  bring  forth  a 
natural  fruitage  of  reward. 

The  system  of  giving  prizes  operates  upon  a 
principle  quite  dififerent  from  this  natural  system  of 
rewards.  The  prize  is  not  bestowed  for  positive 
merit,  but  because  the  merit  of  the  recipient  is 
supposed  to  be  of  a  higher  order  than  that  of  others 
who  may  have  been  his  competitors.  The  prize- 
system  virtually  supersedes  the  system  of  nature, 
and  then  sufl'ers  a  large  number  of  deserving  pupils 
to  remain  without  any  recognition  of  their  worth  in 
the  standard  of  value  adopted.   But,  at  best,  a  prize 


STUDY.  135 

is  not  a  natural  reward  for  hard  study  or  good  con- 
duct, and  when  not  used  directly  as  the  representa- 
tive of  that  reward,  its  value  must  be  wholly  ficti- 
tious. The  bestowment  of  it  is  controlled  by  no 
natural  law,  as  such  laws  require  each  one  to  be 
rewarded  according  to  his  merits,  and  it  is  therefore 
an  arbitrary  reward. 

Having  now  stated  the  principal  arguments  for 
and  against  the  giving  of  prizes  in  school,  it  is 
proper  to  conclude  the  matter  with  an  expression 
of  my  own  opinion.  It  is  briefly  this:  that  in  the 
hands  of  most  teachers,  and  as  generally  practised, 
systems  of  offering  prizes  in  schools  do  much  more 
harm  than  good.  If,  however,  pupils  can  be  made 
to  understand  that  prizes  are  merely  the  tangible 
representation  of  the  real  reward,  and  to  value 
them  accordingly  ;  if  the  prizes  can  be  made  so  nu- 
merous that  the  merits  of  all  can  be  thus  rew^arded, 
and  the  requisite  care  be  taken  that  the  value  of 
each  prize  be  in  proportion  to  the  positive  merit  of 
the  one  who  receives  it,  nearly  all  the  objections  to 
their  use  would  be  removed,  and  they  might  become 
an  auxiliaiy  in  the  work  of  inciting  pupils  to  study. 
The  principle  of  giving  prizes  as  rewards  is  not 
wrong,  but  it  has  been  wrongly  applied.  "With 
judicious  application  its  use  is  safe. 

Merit-Marks. — Teachers  of  Common  Schools  fre- 
quently arrange  their  classes  so  that  the  position  of 
a  pupil  in  the  class  determines  his  merit,  or  at  least 
marks  his  relative  scholarship.  The  practice  of 
changing  places  in  a  class  according  to  an  assumed 
standard  of  merit,  is  not  subject  to  many  of  the 
objections  which  can  be  made  against  the  giving  of 


1S6  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

prizes.  Each  pupil  in  the  class  can  be  made  to 
occupy  the  position  to  which  his  actual  merit  at  the 
recitation  entitles  him;  he  competes  not  only  with 
the  best  scholars  in  the  class,  but  with  those  of 
similar  ability  to  himself,  and  his  place  in  class  is 
a  standard  by  which  his  friends  and  himself  can 
compare  his  proficiency  and  progress  with  others. 
For  young  pupils,  especially,  '^place-taking"  may 
be  employed  with  good  effect. 

In  nearly  all  well-managed  schools,  a  record  is 
kept  by  which  the  scholarship  and  deportment  of 
each  pupil  are  exhibited.  The  marks  used  for  this 
purpose  are  called  Merit  or  Demerit  Marks,  and 
they  are  used  as  an  incentive  to  study.  So  far  as 
relates  to  study,  these  marks  should  be  recorded 
during  the  recitation  or  immediately  after  it,  and  are 
intended  to  indicate  the  degree  of  proficiency  in  each 
lesson.  At  the  end  of  a  week,  a  month,  or  a  year, 
these  marks  may  be  summed  up  and  read  to  the 
pupils  themselves,  forwarded  to  their  friends,  or 
published  to  the  world.  Classes  graduating  at 
many  of  our  higher  institutions  of  learning  are 
honored  by  positions  determined  by  marks  made 
up  from  those  received  during  their  courses  of 
study. 

Are  such  Merit- Marks  productive  of  good? 
Against  their  use  it  may  be  urged  that  the  keeping 
of  them  requires  considerable  time.  This  is  true, 
unless  the  teacher  attends  to  it  during  the  recitation 
or  immediately  after  it;  then  the  deserts  of  each 
member  of  the  class  are  fresh  in  his  mind,  and  he 
has  nothing  to  do  but  to  write  opposite  each  name, 
in  his  class-book,  the  figure  denoting  them. 


STUDY.  137 

Against  their  use,  it  may  also  be  urged  tliat 
nothing  but  the  merit  of  the  recitations  can  be 
marked,  and  that  no  account  can  be  taken  of  differ- 
ences in  natural  talents,  and  opportunities  for  prepa- 
ration. Merit-Marks  for  study  ought  not  to  pretend 
to  indicate  any  thing  else  than  proficiency  in  reciting 
the  lessons.  The  teacher  should  make  this  under- 
stood by  his  pupils.  He  should  also  be  careful  in 
giving  Merit-Marks  for  deportment  to  give  credit  to 
those  who  improve  their  opportunities  of  study  to 
the  best  advantage,  as  well  as  for  propriety  in  their 
general  conduct.  If  this  be  done,  no  one  can  rea- 
sonably complain  of  unjust  treatment. 

Against  their  use,  a  more  serious  objection  may 
be  urged,  that  the  attention  of  pupils  is  apt  to  be 
diverted  by  them  from  the  high  objects  for  which 
study  should  be  pursued  to  the  low  one  of  obtain- 
ing good  marks.  To  this  objection  it  may  be 
replied,  that  the  great  majority  of  students  in  all 
kinds  of  schools  have  not  formed  any  high  ideals 
of  human  perfection,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be 
actuated  by  motives  prompting  to  their  attainment. 
Teachers  must  first  appeal  to  such  motives  as  can 
be  made  effective,  and,  afterwards,  gradually  substi- 
tute nobler  ones.  Merit-Marks,  too,  like  all  kinds 
of  reward,  should  be  considered  as  the  symbols  of 
something  higher  and  better.  They  are,  indeed, 
among  the  safest  of  representative  rewards,  as  all 
pupils  may  be  marked  according  to  their  merit,  and 
the  record,  made  daily,  is  a  safeguard  against  serious 
mistakes. 

In  favor  of  Merit-Marks  it  may  be  said  that  they 
aid  in  giving  system  to  the  working  of  a  school; 


138  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

they  are  a  conveinent  medium  of  conveying  a 
truthful  account  of  progress  in  study  made  by 
pupils,  and  their  conduct,  to  their  friends;  in 
schools  where  several  teachers  are  engaged,  they 
furnish  to  the  Principal  much  needed  information ; 
they  are  almost  indispensable  in  making  transfers 
from  one  class,  or  one  school,  to  another;  and  they 
can  be  made,  when  judiciously  used,  a  safe  and 
powerful  incentive  to  study  and  good  conduct. 

That  system,  however,  by  which  marks  for  merit 
are  allowed  to  cancel  marks  for  demerit,  I  do  not 
approve.  There  is  no  warrant  for  the  principle 
upon  which  it  is  based  in  the  moral  government  of 
the  world.  God  forgives  offences,  but  he  never 
effaces  the  recollection  of  them  from  the  memory 
of  the  wrong-doer.  "Works  of  supererogation  are 
an  impossibility.  It  is  best  to  let  the  daily  marks 
received  by  pupils  stand,  and  make  their  sum  total 
constitute  the  record  for  a  week,  a  month,  or  a 
term. 

Emulation. — Wq  have  no  right  to  seek  after  that 
which  is  unworthy  of  pursuit.  To  do  otherwise 
w^ould  be  to  spend  time  and  effort  in  a  bad  cause, 
a^d  to  weaken  the  moral  sense.  On  this  point, 
however,  there  need  be  no  question  here,  as  all  the 
objects  of  study  are  noble  objects  and  well  worthy 
our  desires. 

Emulation  is  an  effort  to  equal  or  surpass  another 
in  the  pursuit  of  an  object.  There  may  be  emula- 
tion in  school  in  the  struggle  to  gain  a  prize,  a 
position,  or  to  obtain  good  Merit-Marks;  but  the 
kind  of  emulation  now  referred  to,  is  sim'ply  a  desire 
on  the  pari  of  some  pupils  to  equal  or  surpass  others  in  the 


STUDY.  139 

pursuit  of  knowledge.  The  question  now  to  oe  deter- 
mined is  as  to  whether  a  teacher  should  present  this 
kind  of  emulation  to  his  pupils  as  an  incentive  to 
study.  Respecting  this  question,  like  that  respect- 
ing prizes,  considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists 
among  educators;  and,  hence,  it  deserves  careful 
consideration  at  our  hands. 

It  will  be  acknowledged  by  all,  that  the  obtaining 
of  a  prize,  a  position,  or  a  high  mark  of  merit 
ought  not  to  be  the  end  of  study.  The  same  is 
mainly  true  of  those  trials  of  mental  strength  which 
spring  from  emulation;  and  yet  such  trials  may 
have  something  noble  and  manly  about  them.  A 
base  mind  may  be  made  to  work  for  money  or  for 
place,  but  there  have  been  natures  so  generous  as  to 
discard  such  ignoble  motives,  and  yet  be  ever  will- 
ing to  test  their  strength  with  ^'foemen  worthy  of 
their  steel.'*  A  prize,  in  particular,  when  valued 
for  itself,  is  an  artificial  reward;  while  the  com- 
placency which  arises  from  the  consciousness  of 
strength  and  excellence  in  comparison  with  others, 
is  a  natural  reward.  In  competing  for  a  prize,  the 
contest  must  be  between  persons  whose  relations  are 
intimate,  and  therefore  will  be  apt  to  produce  ill 
feelings ;  while  a  pupil  may  emulate  the  excellences 
of  a  member  of  his  class,  those  of  a  person  who 
attends  another  school,  those  of  the  good  and  great 
whose  virtues  adorned  the  age  in  which  they 
lived,  or  even  those  of  a  personage  purely  ideal. 
An  offered  prize  is  within  the  reach  of  only  a  small 
number;  but  the  teacher  can  always  find  some  one 
with  whom  to  match  even  his  dullest  pupils.    Some 

authority  must  decide,  after  a  contest  for  it,  to 

u 


140  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

wliom  a  prize  belongs,  and  there  is  great  danger  of 
deciding  unjustly ;  but  when  emulation  simply  is  the 
actuating  motive,  the  pupils  can  mostly  decide  for 
themselves.  A  prize  won  loses  all  power  as  an  in- 
centive to  study;  but  a  pupil  can  never  long  want 
worthy  rivals. 

From  what  has  just  been  said,  it  appears  that 
emulation  is  a  much  safer  motive  to  be  used  as  an 
incentive  to  study  than  the  desire  to  gain  a  prize; 
and  yet  there  are  some  objections  to  its  use,  which 
must  be  considered. 

It  is  said  that  pupils  are  apt  to  overlook  the  true  end 
of  study  in  the  heat  of  rivalship,  I  do  not  object  to  a 
trial  of  strength  or  skill,  either  physical  or  mental, 
for  itself.  I  believe  that  such  trials,  when  well 
managed,  have  much  in  them  that  is  good  in  its 
results.  But  the  true  end  of  study  is  not  to  equal 
or  surpass  another;  and  whenever  it  is  lost  sight  of 
in  a  contest  for  victory,  the  consequences  must 
necessarily  be  unfortunate,  both  intellectually  and 
morally.  That  the  true  end  of  study  is  sometimes 
overlooked,  when  one  pupil  becomes  the  rival  of 
another,  cannot  be  doubted;  but  there  is  just  as 
little  doubt  that  a  judicious  teacher  can  prevent 
such  a  mistake.  It  is  the  abuse  of  a  good  thing ; 
and  what  good  thing  may  not  be  abused?  Two 
boys  sent  upon  an  errand  need  not  forget  to  do  it 
because  they  run  a  race  on  the  way. 

It  is  said  that  emulation  tends  to  produce  had  feelings 
between  the  contending  parties.  This  result,  it  is  alleged, 
may  not  appear  at  first,  but  it  grows  as  a  contest 
becomes  more  close.  That  a  generous  spirit  may  be 
made  selfish  from  this  cause,  that  even  jealousy  and 


STUDY.  141 

hatred  may  be  engendered,  I  tliink,  cannot  be 
doubted;  and  if  such  is  the  legitimate  result  of  the 
employment  of  emulation  as  an  incentive  to  study, 
resort  should  be  had  to  some  less  dangerous  mo- 
tive. 

A  teacher,  however,  can  make  use  of  emulation 
without  incurring  such  ill  consequences.  He  can 
terminate  a  rivalship  whenever  he  deems  it  best, 
and  he  can  always  avoid  such  as  are  close  and  per- 
sonal. Standards  of  comparison  may  be  chosen 
from  without  the  school  as  well  as  from  within  it. 

And,  besides,  I  do  not  believe  that  the  legitimate 
effect  of  a  trial  of  mental  or  physical  strength  is  to 
produce  bad  feelings.  It  may  do  this  with  low  and 
narrow  minds  ;  but  with  the  brave  and  generous,  if 
properly  conducted,  it  never  does.  The  most  skil- 
ful players  in  games  of  ball  or  cricket,  the  fastest 
skaters,  and  the  truest  marksmen,  are  nearly  always 
the  best  of  friends.  Their  trials  of  skill  teach  them 
to  respect  one  another.  Such,  too,  might  be  the 
effect  of  the  rivalship  of  the  school-room.  True, 
now  and  then  unsuspected  selfishness  will  come  to 
the  surface  ;  but,  in  morals  as  in  medicine,  the  open 
manifestation  of  a  disease  presents  the  best  oppor- 
tunities for  administering  the  appropriate  remedies. 

It  is  said  that  the  effect  of  the  use  of  emulation  in 
school  is  to  make  ambitious  men. — Ambition  may  be 
either  good  or  bad.  That  unscrupulous  ambition 
which  seeks  place  and  power  regardless  of  all  other 
interests,  which  has  drenched  the  world  with  blood 
and  filled  it  with  misery  and  woe,  is  to  be  deprecated 
everywhere.  Rather  than  that  schools  should  be- 
come the  nurseries  of  such  ambition,  let  the  schools 


142  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

tliemselves  be  closed.  But  no  sentiment  can  be 
nobler  than  that  ambition  which  prompts  men  to  do 
great  deeds  for  themselves  and  for  the  race,  which 
has  pioneered  civilization,  marched  at  the  head  of 
reforms,  and  given  the  world  its  science  and  its  art. 
Ambition  is  good  when  directed  to  good  ends,  and 
bad  when  directed  to  bad  ends.  Does  emulation 
encouraged  in  school  necessarily  lead  to  the  in- 
dulgence of  an  unworthy  ambition  ? 

The  use  of  emulation  in  school  is  calculated  to 
make  ambitious  men ;  and  without  such  men  the 
whole  intellectual  and  moral  world  would  stand 
still.  Whether  the  working  out  of  their  energies 
tends  to  do  good  or  ill  to  the  human  family  depends 
upon  the  manner  in  which  those  energies  are  di- 
rected. It  is  a  matter  of  great  responsibility  to 
awaken  the  ambition  of  the  young,  and  to  count 
upon  giving  proper  direction  to  it.  It  may  be  like 
sowing  the  wind  and  reaping  the  whirlwind;  but 
the  teacher  has  no  alternative.  He  aims  to  make 
men,  and  men  must  have  ambition.  Indeed,  he 
meets  with  the  same  difficulty  in  regard  to  all  the 
power  he  evokes  and  to  all  the  skill  he  imparts. 
Education  either  unchains  a  devil  or  frees  a  man ; 
but  the  chance  of  an  escape  from  the  bondage  of 
ignorance  warrants  all  risks.  These  risks,  however, 
should  be  rendered  as  slight  as  possible  by  the  con- 
stant vigilance  of  teachers  and  parents. 

Several  special  arguments  in  favor  of  an  appeal 
to  emulation  as  an  incentive  to  study  will  be  named. 

Emulation  is  a  feeling  incident  to  our  nature,  and 
therefore  has  its  use. — It  is  natural  to  compare  our- 
selves with  others.     To  this  is  owing  the  powerful 


STUDY.  143 

influence  of  example.  "Without  it  the  lives  of  the 
good  and  the  great  would  teach  us  no  moral. 

The  results  of  a  spirit  of  emulation  appear  in  all 
nations,  and  at  all  times.  Ifations  have  competed 
with  one  another  in  commerce,  manufactures,  sci- 
ence, art,  and  arms.  Individuals  have  measured 
strength  in  pastimes,  in  trade,  in  the  forum,  in 
peaceful  science,  and  in  bloody  combat.  Children 
emulate  one  another  in  early  infancy;  and  many  of 
the  plays  of  childhood  and  the  games  of  school-boy 
days  derive  all  their  interest  from  the  efibrts  of  some 
to  equal  or  excel  others.  Society  is  kept  alive  by 
competition.  We  find  it  in  all  the  avenues  of  business, 
in  the  family,  in  the  State,  and  in  the  Church.  A 
power  so  universally  active  cannot  be  doomed  to 
silence  in  the  school-room.  The  teacher  vdll  find 
it  as  a  part  of  human  nature,  and  he  cannot  deny  it 
a  use  unless  he  question  the  wisdom  of  Him  who 
made  man  as  he  is.  ITot  that  one  man  was  designed 
to  enjoy  a  triumph  over  another's  misfortunes;  not 
that  some  should  rise  by  ruining  others;  but  all 
were  intended  to  journey  through  life  mutually  pro- 
tected, encouraged,  and  strengthened.  ^'Iron  sharp- 
eneth  iron ;  so  a  man  sharpeneth  the  countenance 
of  his  friend." 

The  desire  of  emulation  is  a  part  of  our  nature. 
It  was  designed  as  an  incentive  to  that  which  is 
good.     The  teacher  can  thus  use  it. 

Emulation  can  he  made  a  powerful  means  of  securing 
advancement  in  learning, — If  it  be  admitted  that  one 
person  may  measure  his  strength  against  another's, 
while  both  are  in  the  pursuit  of  some  object,  that 
two  pupils  while   studying  their  lessons  may  see 

14« 


144  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

wliich  of  tliem  can  perform  the  work  most  speedily, 
then,  free  from  any  moral  objectionj  the  teacher  will 
have  placed  in  his  hands  a  powerful  means  of  secur- 
ing progress  in  study.  He  can  stir  up  by  it  not  only 
individuals,  but  classes  and  the  whole  school.  Few 
will  be  found  so  indiiferent  or  dull  that  they  cannot 
be  made  to  feel  its  influence.  My  own  success  as  a 
school-officer  was  largely  attributable  to  the  eflbrt 
made  to  induce  the  teacher  and  pupils  of  one  school 
to  equal  those  of  another  and  to  hold  up  to  the 
people  of  some  districts  the  bright  example  of  others. 
A  teacher  may  use  emulation  where  higher  motives 
would  prove  unavailing.  Many  who  would  not  ap- 
preciate the  worth  of  learning  can  be  moved  by  the 
desire  of  doing  better  than  those  with  whom  they 
may  be  matched. 

Emulation  can  he  used  to  give  culture  to  character, — 
If  well  guarded,  emulation  among  pupils  will  make 
them  more  manly,  more  generous,  and  more  brave. 
It  will  teach  them  to  form  more  just  estimates  of 
their  own  powers  and  the  powers  of  others.  It 
often  furnishes  a  cure  for  selfishness,  and  gives 
strength  to  the  will.  It  can  be  used  to  give  culture 
to  that  radical  disposition  of  the  spirit  which  is 
termed  character. 

I  know  that  the  general  estimate  of  the  value  of 
emulation  as  an  incentive  to  study  differs  from  that 
just  stated;  but,  before  an  objector  decide  that  mine 
is  erroneous,  I  would  like  to  have  him  join  a  well- 
regulated  cricket  or  base-ball  club  composed  of 
students,  play  with  them  for  six  months,  and  closely 
observe  the  moral  effect.  There  may  be  games  in 
Mathematics,  in  the  Sciences,  in  Language ;   and, 


STUDY.  145 

according  to  my  observation,  all  may  be  made  highly 
beneficial  even  in  a  moral  sense.  Emulation,  how- 
ever, like  sharp  tools,  requires  skilful  handling.  It 
may  do  much  good  or  great  harm. 

Fear  of  Punishment, — The  fear  of  punishment  is 
not  anywhere  the  highest  incentive  to  the  perform- 
ance of  duty;  but  everywhere  there  seems  to  be  a 
necessity  for  its  use.  The  Creator  in  His  moral 
government  holds  out  the  strongest  inducements  to 
well-doing ;  but,  when  His  laws  are  broken.  He 
strives  to  bring  the  offenders  back  to  obedience  by 
punishments,  mild  or  severe,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  offence.  The  authorities  of  a  State  find  it 
politic  to  inflict  fines,  imprisonment,  and  death, 
upon  criminals.  True,  an  individual  who  obej^s  the 
laws  of  God  or  the  laws  of  a  State  merely  because 
he  fears  the  punishment  that  will  be  inflicted  upon 
the  disobedient,  is  not  acting  in  a  manner  worthy 
of  a  man  or  a  citizen ;  but  each  one  must  do  his 
duty, — if  not  from  love,  then  by  force. 

These  principles  apply  to  the  use  of  the  fear  of 
punishment  as  an  incentive  to  study.  Pains  should 
not  be  spared,  nor  should  patience  be  exhausted,  in 
the  effort  to  induce  pupils  to  study  from  higher  and 
better  motives ;  but  such  motives  cannot  always  be 
made  at  once  effective,  and  in  the  mean  time  lessons 
must  be  learned.  The  idle  must  first  be  made  to 
work  from  some  motive,  and  afterwards  their  motives 
can  be  elevated.  Pearls  are  not  appreciated  by 
swine  now  any  better  than  they  were  when  Christ 
preached  in  Jrdea,  more  than  eighteen  hundred 
years  ago.     For  these  reasons,  I  think,  the  fear  of 


146  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

punishment  may  sometimes  be  used  as  an  incentive 
to  study. 

Lessons  learned,  however,  because  punishment  is 
feared,  are  much  less  valuable  to  the  learner  than 
if  he  learned  thena  from  a  better  motive,  as  they  do 
not  in  such  cases  promote  healthy  mental  growth ; 
but  they  are  better  than  no  lessons,  and  the  teacher 
may  choose  the  least  of  two  necessary  evils.  The 
mistake  which  is  apt  to  be  made  by  the  teacher  is  to 
continue  the  use  of  the  fear  of  punishment  as  an 
incentive  to  study  long  after  he  should  have  dis- 
placed it  by  bringing  into  requisition  higher  motives. 
Moral  culture  is  a  growth  as  well  as  intellectual ;  and 
if  the  teacher  must  begin  his  work  with  motives 
addressed  to  the  animal  nature,  he  can  only  safely 
end  it  when  the  actuating  principles  are  worthy  a 
being  created  in  the  image  of  God. 

The  punishments  inflicted  ipr  badly-prepared  les- 
sons, it  may  be  well  to  add,  should  not  be  arbitrary 
in  their  character.  Corporeal  punishments  of  any 
kind  should  never  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
punishment  should  follow  the  offence  as  effect  fol- 
lows cause,  and  be  naturally  connected  with  it.  It 
is  best  that  the  pupil  should  fear  the  punishment  as 
the  result  of  his  own  folly,  and  not  as  the  arbitrary 
infliction  of  the  teacher.  For  example,  badly-pre- 
pared lessons  might  be  relearned  at  recess  or  noon- 
time. If  this  were  a  general  rule,  the  pupils,  fearing 
the  loss  of  the  privilege  of  play,  would  study  more 
diligently,  until,  perhaps,  they  might  acquire  the 
habit  or  the  taste  for  study,  when  the  influence  of 
fear  would  be  no  longer  needed  to  secure  diligence. 
Besides,  the  loss  of  the  teacher's  approbation,  the 


STUDY.  147 

forfeiture  of  tlie  good  opinion  of  the  class,  the  less- 
ening of  their  own  self-respect,  the  mortification 
which  arises  from  a  failure  to  perform  what  others 
accomplish,  the  rebukes  of  conscience  for  neglect 
of  duty,  are  natural  punishments  which  are  wisely 
adapted  to  correct  the  careless  habits  of  study  into 
which  pupils  may  have  fallen. 

Shame, — Shame  is  that  feeling  which  arises  from 
a  consciousness  of  having  done  something  wrong 
or  degrading.  Remorse  is  the  reproach  of  con- 
science for  wrong-doing ;  shame  is  ihQ  sense  of 
personal  degradation.  All  right-meaning  persons 
experience  shame  w^hen  they  have  yielded  to  temp- 
tation or  failed  to  perform  some  duty.  Little  well- 
founded  hope  can  be  entertained  of  one  who  is 
"dead  to  shame."  There  are  higher  motives  by 
which  to  prompt  idle  pupils  to  the  performance  of 
duty  than  the  sense  of  shame ;  but  the  uprising  of 
this  feeling  is  one  of  the  ways  in  w^hich  our  nature 
reacts  against  a  course  of  conduct  that  is  unworthy 
of  us. 

A  pupil  may  feel  ashamed  when  he  has  suffered 
his  time  to  pass  unimproved,  when  his  lessons  have 
been  badly  prepared ;  and  he  may  be  induced  thereby 
to  abandon  idle  habits  and  engage  in  a  manly  per- 
formance of  his  duty.  Operating  in  this  way,  the 
sense  of  shame  is  a  proper  incentive  to  study.  The 
teacher  may  deepen  a  delinquent  pupil's  feeling  of 
shame  by  reminding  him  of  his  duty,  and  by  making 
him  sensible  of  his  abuse  of  privileges ;  but  the 
feeling  should  be  suffered  to  arise  of  itself.  An 
attempt  to  degrade  a  pupil  in  the  presence  of  others 
— to  make  him  feel  little  and  unworthy — is  many 


148  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OE   THE   SCHOOL. 

times  to  do  him  more  harm  than  good.  It  is  qnite 
easy  for  a  blundering  operator  to  blunt  a  pupil's 
sense  of  shame  instead  of  quickening  it. 

But  few  circumstances  will  justify  a  teacher  in 
making  a  public  exposure  of  a  pupil's  delinquencies ; 
and  none  can  ever  justify  his  holding  him  up  to 
public  shame.  The  faults  of  pupils  are  seldom  so 
grave  in  their  nature  as  to  call  for  the  use  of  means 
for  correcting  them  that  may  induce  the  erring 
ones  to  shun  the  teacher's  counsel  and  his  presence 
and  seek  the  society  of  the  vicious.  The  loss  of 
self-respect  in  boys  and  girls,  as  well  as  in  men  and 
women,  renders  their  reform  hopeless.  This  loss  is 
suffered  by  those  whose  faults  are  unduly  exposed, 
or  whose  sense  of  shame  is  trifled  with. 

Ridicule, — Life  has  its  ludicrous  as  well  as  its 
weak  side.  Men  sometimes  deserve  to  be  laughed 
at  as  well  as  to  be  pitied.  Democritus  and  Heraclitus 
were  both  right.  Ridicule  may  be  used  with  good 
eff*ect  in  rebuking  the  vices  and  follies  of  man- 
kind. 

Doubtless,  the  mistakes  of  ignorant  pupils  are 
often  very  ridiculous.  Shall  the  teacher  ridicule 
them,  or  permit  others  to  do  so,  for  the  purpose  of 
inducing  the  necessary  effort  to  avoid  such  mistakes  ? 
It  is  impossible  at  such  times  always  to  avoid 
a  laugh;  but  I  have  never  seen  any  good  arise 
from  the  teacher's  attempt  to  excite  one.  As  with 
respect  to  the  sense  of  shame;  for  a  teacher  to 
expose  a  pupil  to  public  ridicule — to  point  the  finger 
of  scorn  at  him  himself,  or  to  suffer  others  to  do  it — 
is,  in  a  vast  majority  of  cases,  to  injure  him  rather 
than  to  correct  his   faults.     Still,  in  private,  and, 


STUDY.  149 

much  more  seldom,  before  the  school,  the  lazy  and 
the  careless  may  be  made  more  sensible  of  their 
duties  by  hearing  the  faults  into  which  they  have 
fallen,  or  the  follies  in  which  they  have  engaged, 
exposed  to  ridicule;  and  circumstances  may  even 
justify  the  application  of  its  lash  to  the  bare  back 
of  some  reckless  spendthrift  of  money,  time,  talent, 
or  privileges.  As,  however,  there  are  so  many 
higher  incentives  to  study  than  ridicule,  my  advice 
to  teachers  is  that  they  be  sparing  in  its  use,  for  it 
ofttimes  wounds  instead  of  heals. 

2d.  Froper  Incentives  to  Study, — Chief  among  the 
incentives  to  study  which  are  always  deemed  proper, 
are  the  following : — 

The  Approbation  of  the  Teacher. 
The  Approbation  of  the  Parents  and  Friends  of  the 
'  Pupil, 

The  Approbation  of  Society. 

The  Attainment  of  an  honorable  Position  in  the  School. 

The  Pleasure  of  overcoming  Difficulties. 

The  Gratification  of  Cariosity. 

The  Desire  of  Knowledge, 

The  Hope  of  Success  in  Life. 

The  Enjoyment  of  purer  ideal  Creations. 

The  Duty  of  Self  Perfection. 

The  Satisfaction  of  doing  Right. 

The  Prospect  of  Heavenly  Reward. 

Some  of  these  incentives  may  include  others;  but 
I  have  thought  that  the  force  of  the  whole  is  better 
expressed  arranged  as  they  stand.  A  few  remarks 
will  be  made  with  respect  to  each. 


150  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

The  Approbation  of  the  Teacher, — A  teacher  who 
does  not  enjoy  the  respect  and  love  of  his  pupils 
can  never  teach  them  well.  He  may  till  the  soil  of 
the  mind  skilfully,  but  the  seed  he  scatters  will  have 
no  healthy  germination. 

The  approbation  of  a  teacher  who  enjoys  the 
respect  and  love  of  his  pupils  is  a  strong  incentive 
to  them  to  study.  Such  pupils  will  often  study  day 
and  night — sacrifice  comfort  and  health — to  please  a 
teacher.  What  teacher  has  not  seen  every  feature 
of  his  pupils'  countenances  marked  with  pleasure — 
has  not  known  that  every  fibre  of  their  being  vibrated 
with  delight — when  kind  words  of  approval  cheered 
their  triumph  over  some  difficulty  ? 

What  we  do  is  rendered  comparatively  easy  if 
we  are  sure  that  it  will  be  appreciated.  A  farmer 
walked  through  his  field  where  some  laborers  were 
mowing.  "  This  is  fine  mowing,"  said  he, — ''  the  best 
I  have  ever  seen."  The  laborers  smiled,  looked  at 
one  another,  and  worked  away  with  a  will  that 
seemed  to  say,  ^'We  can  do  it  better  still."  This 
is  human  nature;  and  the  teacher  will  find  human 
nature  in  the  school-room. 

If  a  teacher  desire  to  have  his  pupils  do  much 
work  and  do  it  well,  he  must  observe  what  they 
have  done,  and  let  them  see  that  he  appreciates 
merit.  A  teacher  who  is  never  pleased  with  any 
thing,  who  never  gives  an  approving  smile  or  utters 
an  encouraging  word,  need  not  expect  to  have  dili- 
gent pupils.  Some  teachers  suffer  themselves  to 
fall  into  the  habit  of  finding  fault  with  every  thing 
that  does  not  please  them,  and  of  seeming  scarcely 
satisfied  with  any  thing ;  but  the  inevitable  fruit  of 


STUDY.  151 

such  a  course  of  conduct  is  unwilling  pupils  and 
little  work.  A  teacher  should  commend  where  he  can^ 
and  find  fault  only  when  he  must.  Honest  effort, 
should  be  encouraged.  Kind  words,  smiles,  nods  of 
approval,  attentions  shown,  and  privileges  granted, 
should  reward  the  student  for  work  well  done.  A 
teacher  who  enjoys  the  confidence  and  good  will  of 
his  pupils,  and  who  knows  how  to  bestow  com- 
mendation and  when  to  withhold  it,  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  power  which  may  be  made  a  strong 
incentive  to  study. 

It  is  not  meant,  of  course,  that  indiscriminate 
praise  should  be  given.  The  teacher  must  choose 
a  right  time,  a  fit  place,  and  a  proper  manner  for 
performing  this  delicate  duty.  ISo  pupil  should  be 
praised  who  does  not  deserve  it;  nor  should  a 
teacher  praise  every  deserving  act,  as  if  his  appro- 
bation was  the  only  reward  for  it.  There  is  perhaps 
as  much  danger  in  praising  pupils  too  much  as  in 
praising  them  too  little ;  but,  in  practice,  every 
teacher  must  be  guided  by  his  own  judgment. 

The  Approbation  of  the  Parents  and  Friends  of  the 
Pupils, — When  home  and  social  influences  are  of 
the  right  kind,  the  approbation  of  the  parents  and 
friends  of  the  pupils  is  a  very  strong  incentive  to 
study,  and  the  teacher  may  safely  appeal  to  it.  Even 
when  parents  are  indiff*erent  about  their  own  mental 
and  moral  improvement,  they  will  nearly  always 
sanction  any  judicious  measures  a  teacher  may  adopt 
for  the  mental  and  moral  improvement  of  their 
children.  It  is  many  times  unsafe  for  a  teacher  to 
refer  to  a  parent's  example;  but  it  is  hardly  ever 
injudicious  for  him  to  strengthen  his  cause  by  citing 

15 


152  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OE   THE    SCHOOL. 

a  parent's  opinion.  There  are  very  few  parents 
who  do  not  desire  their  children  to  learn  when  they 
send  them  to  school,  and  very  few  children  who  do 
not  have  some  regard  for  their  parents'  wishes ;  and 
these  facts  may  be  taken  advantage  of  in  enforcing 
the  duty  of  study.  Pupils  may  be  urged  to  prepare 
for  an  expected  visit  of  parents  and  friends,  or  for 
an  examination  before  them.  They  will  desire  their 
teachers  and  schoolmates  to  speakwell  of  them  before 
these  parents  and  friends,  and  they  will  themselves  be 
glad  to  carry  home  the  news  of  their  progress,  and 
thus  exchange  good  lessons  for  encouraging  words 
and  approving  smiles.  Happy  the  circumstances  of 
that  school  where  the  teacher  and  the  relatives  and 
friends  of  the  pupils  are  equally  intelligent,  and 
where  all  co-operate  in  the  work  of  instruction ! 

The  Approhation  of  Society, — Students  have  not 
always  received  the  approbation  of  society.  In 
past  times,  some  learned  men  were  thought  by  their 
cotemporaries  to  have  dealings  with  the  Evil  One, 
and  others  were  compelled  to  suffer  imprisonment 
and  death,  because  they  cast  their  pearls  of  know- 
ledge before  swine,  who  trampled  them  under  their 
feet  and  turned  to  rend  their  best  benefactors. 

But  at  the  present  time,  in  every  intelligent  com- 
munity, the  scholar  is  respected.  His  advice  is 
sought,  and  his  scholarship  is  a  passport  to  social 
honors.  Indeed,  the  scholar  now  ennobles  the  place 
of  his  birth,  the  house  in  which  he  lived  becomes 
almost  sacred,  and  pilgrims  from  distant  lands  go 
sadly  to  gaze  upon  his  grave. 

The  hard-working  pupils  in  our  Common  Schools 
are  not  unhonored  in  their  neighborhoods.     Tbo 


STUDY.  153 

people  are  proud  of  them.  They  mark  them  out 
for  future  honors. 

This  approbation  of  society — this  reputation  for 
scholarship — may  be  lawfully  sought  by  students ; 
and  let  no  one  blame  them  if  sometimes,  among 
higher  incentives  to  study,  they  permit  dreams  of 
such  honors  to  cheer  their  rugged  pathway. 

The  Attainment  of  an  honorable  Position  in  the  School. 
— All  schools  have  their  positions  of  honor.  These 
may  be  exhibited  by  a  place  in  a  class,  by  marks  on 
a  roll  of  merit,  or  by  the  silent  suffrages  of  school- 
mates ;  and  their  attainment  is  to  the  ambitious  a 
powerful  incentive  to  study.  It  is  almost  worth  a 
fortune  to  a  man  to  enjoy  the  reputation  of  having 
been  the  best  scholar  in  a  good  school ;  and  to  gra- 
duate with  the  first  honor  in  a  class  at  college  is 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  life. 
[N^or  are  such  motives  unworthy  ones. 

It  is  true  that  but  few  can  expect  to  occupy  the 
highest  positions  in  a  school ;  but  all  good  students 
can  reach  honorable  positions,  and  these,  under  the 
judicious  management  of  a  skilful  teacher,  a  large 
majority  will  strive  to  attain. 

The  attainment  of  an  honorable  position  as  an  in- 
centive to  study  is  particularly  strong  in  schools 
where  both  sexes  are  educated  together.  The  mem- 
bers of  one  sex  always  have  more  regard  for  the 
opinions  of  persons  of  the  opposite  sex  than  of 
those  belonging  to  their  own. 

The  Pleasure  of  overcoming  Difficulties. — There  is 
real  pleasure  arising  from  the  doing  of  hard  things. 
Boys  will  lift,  and  jump,  and  run,  and  climb,  when 
uo  one  sees  them,  and  for  no  other  purpose  save 


154  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

that  of  testing  their  strength.  They  will  work  out 
puzzles,  solve  problems,  and  engage  in  other  feats 
of  mental  gymnastics,  merely  for  the  enjoyment 
which  comes  from  difficulties  encountered  and  over- 
come. A  vast  amount  of  hard  mental  and  physical 
effort  is  expended  every  day  with  no  end  in  view 
"but  that  of  doing  difficult  things.  It  is  one  of  the 
ways  nature  uses  to  secure  that  toughening  of  muscle 
and  that  discipline  of  mind  which  the  world  needs 
to  manage  its  affairs. 

The  biography  of  Dr.  Kane  furnishes  a  good 
example  in  illustration  of  the  principle  just  stated. 
Connected  with  the  house  of  Dr.  Kane's  father 
there  was  a  chimney  of  considerable  height  above 
the  roof.  The  difficulty  of  ascending  it  on  the  out- 
side often  formed  the  subject  of  the  thoughts  of 
young  Kane  as  he  gazed  up  at  it.  It  was  a  temp- 
tation he  could  not  resist,  and  he  resolved  to  scale 
the  chimney.  In  order  to  avoid  the  opposition  of 
father  and  mother,  the  hour  of  midnight,  w^hen  all 
w^ere  asleep,  was  chosen.  "With  his  brother,  whose 
sympathy  in  his  undertaking  he  enjoyed,  to  assist, 
he  mounted  the  roof,  and,  after  repeated  trials,  suc- 
ceeded in  throwing  a  stone,  with  a  rope  attached, 
into  the  open  top  of  the  chimney.  The  rope  being 
made  fast  below,  and  his  brother  holding  on  to  the 
other  end,  the  fearless  boy  began  the  ascent.  Hand 
over  hand  he  mounts  upwards,  reaches  the  top,  and, 
by  great  exertion,  succeeds  in  seating  himself  upon 
it;  and  the  future  hero  who  is  destined  to  explore 
the  frozen  regions  of  the  polar  sea  and  brave  all  its 
dangers  thus  triumphs  over  a  difficulty  that  seemed 
to  challenge  his  youthful  powers.     The  descent  was 


STUDY.  155 

quickly  performed,  the  rope  was  hidden  away,  and 
the  daring  boy  retired  to  sleep  satisfied. 

Science  in  all  its  departments  presents  hard  pro- 
blems and  difficult  questions.  Let  the  teacher  bring 
them  to  the  attention  of  his  pupils  in  such  a  way 
as  to  teni'pt  them  to  test  their  strength.  Let  him 
teach  them  to  make  long,  hearty  efforts, — to  pull, 
and  tug,  and  twist,  until  the  work  is  done.  Brave 
students  like  to  do  hard  things;  and,  as  they  find 
hard  things  in  science,  they  are  often  induced  to 
study  in  order  that  they  may  enjoy  the  pleasure  of 
overcoming  difficulties. 

The  Gratification  of  Curiosity. — ^'Admiratio  est  semen 
sapiejitice,''  says  Bacon;  and  Hamilton  has  a  similar 
sentiment,  "Wonder  is  the  mother  of  Knowledge." 
It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  impulse  that  prompts 
the  young  in  their  search  for  information  is  curiosity. 
Long  before  they  can  appreciate  the  worth  of  know- 
ledge or  desire  to  seek  it  for  its  own  sake,  their 
curiosity  has  led  them  to  notice  facts  and  pheno- 
mena and  to  find  out  their  relations  and  significance. 
Ifor  is  this  feeling  confined  to  children.  Men  evince 
it  in  their  travels  into  the  unexplored  regions  of  the 
earth,  and  in  their  study  of  the  mysteries  which  are 
found  in  all  departments  of  nature. 

Knowledge  can  be  so  imparted  in  school  as  to 
gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  pupils.  Something  new 
and  novel  may  be  taught  them  every  day.  They 
can  be  constantly  delighted  with  a  revelation  of  the 
wonders  of  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  heavens. 
Study  thus  conducted  would  be  like  traveling  in  an 
uu known  land,  where  every  hour  brings  into  view 
scenes  new,  and  strange,  and  interesting.     It  is  to 

15* 


156  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OE   THE    SCHOOL.     " 

be  feared,  however,  that  our  dull  methods  of  teach- 
ing often  tend  to  repress  the  curiosity  of  the  young 
instead  of  seeking  to  gratify  it.  Children  many 
times  find  that  book-learning  is  not  the  same  as 
what  they  so  readily  learned  in  field,  wood,  and 
stream, — as  what  nature  taught  them, — and  so  be- 
come disgusted  with  study. 

A  teacher  should  always  have  in  view  the  gratifi- 
cation of  the  curiosity  of  his  pupils.  Study  to  the 
younger  pupils  should  be  like  turning  over  the 
leaves  of  a  picture-book,  like  opening  drawer  after 
drawer  of  curiosities,  like  exhibiting  ever-changing 
shop-windows,  like  looking  at  successive  cases  of 
objects  in  a  museum,  like  witnessing  the  shifting 
scenes  of  a  drama  or  a  panorama.  To  the  older,  the 
objects  of  study  may  change  less  frequently,  color 
and  form  may  excite  less  interest ;  but  there  should 
be  a  continual  unfolding  of  new  order,  new  beauty, 
new  laws,  and  more  wonderful  facts,  to  give  attrac- 
tion to  it. 

The  Desire  of  Knowledge. — The  desn^e  of  knowledge 
is  one  of  the  noblest  incentives  to  study.  In  using 
it,  no  caution  is  necessary.  A  pupil  who  craves 
knowledge  for  its  own  sake  will  find  a  prize  in 
every  truth  learned.  He  will  not  need  the  spur  of 
position  or  emulation  to  prompt  him  to  exertion, 
and  fear  of  punishment,  shame  and  ridicule,  are 
for  influencing  other  natures  than  his.  Even  the 
approbation  of  teachers,  friends,  and  society  is 
enjoyed  by  him  more  as  the  reward  of  his  ^efforts 
than  as  the  end  for  which  his  learning  was  sought. 

The  desire  of  knowledge  is  not  created  by  artifi- 
cial mea.ns,  but  is  innate.     God  made  the  world  and 


STUDY.  157 

stored  it  with  things  to  be  known,  and  implanted 
in  the  bosom  of  man,  for  whom  the  world  was 
designed,  the  desire  to  know  them.  Engaged  in 
trade  and  traffic^  many  come  to  set  no  store  upon 
that  knowledge  which  cannot  be  valued  in  dollars 
and  cents ;  but  it  would  be  well  for  such  persons 
to  remember  that  things  of  greatest  value  cannot 
be  bought  and  sold,  and  that  God  would  not  create 
what  is  unworthy  of  our  study. 

Simply  to  possess  knowledge  gives  pleasure.  The 
mental  appetite  is  thus  satisfied.  A  true  philosopher 
is  a  lover  of  wisdom, — not  for  its  practical  uses,  but 
for  its  intrinsic  worth.  The  richest  fruits  of  science 
are  the  results  of  the  desire  of  knowledge. 

Teachers  will  find  this  desire  of  knowledge  among 
their  pupils, — in  some,  weak,  in  others,  stronger;  but 
in  the  majority,  it  can  be  made  a  powerful  incentive 
to  study.  At  first  their  curiosity  must  be  gratified, 
as  previously  shown ;  but,  finally,  they  should  be 
made  lovers  of  truth.  This  done,  earth  has  few  em- 
ployments that  can  furnish  the  same  degree  of  pure 
happiness  as  study. 

The  Hojpe  of  Success  in  Life. — Men  who  are  rightly 
educated  succeed  best  in  business.  Education  is 
useful  even  in  the  common  aflFairs  of  life.  Learn- 
ing— not  merely  a  smattering  of  Arithmetic,  Gram- 
mar, and  Book-Keeping,  but  liberal  learning — is  an 
advantage  to  mechanics,  farmers,  and  merchants,  as 
well  as  to  lawyers,  doctors,  and  clergymen.  If 
making  money  were  the  chief  end  of  life,  the  edu- 
cated man  would  enjoy  many  chances  not  open  to 
the  ignorant.     A  teacher  will  do  well  to  show  his 


158  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

pupils  the  relation  of  the  branches  they  study  to 
the  practical  aiFairs  of  society. 

There  is  such  a  thing  as  true  honor.  What  is 
called  honor  may  be  mere  tinsel;  but  there  is  real 
respect  due  to  work,  and  all  men  may  lawfully  strive 
to  deserve  it.  An  educated  man,  other  things  being 
equal,  can  accomplish  more  for  society,  is  more  de- 
serving of  respect,  and  more  likely  to  be  honored, 
than  one  who  has  been  denied  the  privileges  of  an 
education. 

Reputation  is  not  always  a  bauble.  A  good  name 
is  a  treasure  not  to  be  lightly  esteemed.  It  is  better 
than  riches.  Ignorant  men  have  few  opportunities 
to  acquire  a  reputation.  Their  sphere  in  life  is  cir- 
cumscribed. They  move  on  a  low  plane.  KTot  all 
so-called  educated  men  have  a  desirable  reputation ; 
but  the  names  of  the  great  benefactors  of  mankind 
m  the  past  and  in  the  present  are  those  of  educated 
men. 

Men  are  unworthy  of  place  and  power  when  they 
hold  them  unworthily ;  but  society  has  positions 
which  are  more  responsible  and  which  require 
greater  ability  in  the  occupants  than  others.  They 
are  found  both  in  Church  and  State,  and  in  the  affairs 
of  general  society.  It  is  not  unworthy  any  man  to 
aspire  to  fill  such  positions.  They  will  be  filled  by 
somebody.  ''The  oflice  should  seek  the  man;"  but 
no  man  will  be  sought  unless  he  is  supposed  to  be 
qualified,  and  qualified  he  can  hardly  be  without  an 
education,  either  obtained  by  self-exertion  or  by  the 
aid  of  teachers. 

Thus  it  appears  that  success  in  life,  whether  it 
consists  in  doing  work  for  society,  or  in  gaining 


STUDY.  159 

honor,  reputation,  place,  or  power,  depends  very 
much  upon  education;  and  this  may  be  made  an 
incentive  to  study.  Educated  men  must  make  the 
laws  of  a  State,  and  govern  it ;  must  study  science, 
and  apply  its  principles ;  must  write  books,  invent 
machinery,  command  armies,  lead  reformations, 
head  expeditions,  and  marshal  the  general  affairs  of 
society.  The  ignorant  occupy  the  rear  in  the  on- 
ward march  of  human  progress,  and  educated  men 
lead  the  van.  These  facts  are  so  open  to  observa- 
tion that  they  can  easily  be  made  to  exert  their  due 
injluence  in  inciting  pupils  to  study.  Indeed,  with 
some  pupils  such  influences  have  rather  to  be  weak- 
ened than  strengthened;  for  harm  may  he  done  by 
inculcating  the  opinion  among  them  that  all  are 
one  day  to  become  Governors  or  Presidents,  Bacons 
or  Humboldts. 

The  Enjoyment  of  purer  ideal  Oreaiions. — God  is 
truth,  and  He  has  embodied  this  attribute  of  His 
nature  in  His  creation.  All  science  consists  of 
truths  discovered  by  men,  and  arranged  into  systems. 
Everywhere  other  truths  await  their  interpreter. 
The  sum  of  all  the  truths  known,  and  all  the  truths 
possible,  constitutes  truih^  and  above  all  is  the  ideal 
standard  by  which  truth  is  measured, — The  True. 

God  is  beauty,  and  He  has  made  His  creation 
after  patterns  of  the  beautiful  in  His  own  mind. 
How  richly  is  beauty  painted  on  the  leaves  of  trees, 
on  the  petals  of  flowers,  on  the  plumage  of  birds, 
in  the  ever-varying  tints  of  water,  and  upon  the  blue 
sky !  How  magnificently  it  is  impressed  upon 
nature's  sculptured  forms,  from  the  tiny  blade  of 
grass  up  to  the  grand  dome  of  Heaven  !      How 


160  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

sweetly  it  is  sung  in  rippling  waters,  in  sighing 
winds,  in  the  warbling  of  birds,  and  in  the  infant's 
prattle  !  Painter,  Sculptor,  Poet,  catch  glimpses  of 
this  beauty,  and  would  fain  express  it  on  canvas, 
chisel  it  in  stone,  or  hymn  it  forth  in  Poetry  or 
Music.  Higher  than  all  this  beauty  is  the  ideal 
conception  that  comprehends  all  possible  beauty, — 
The  Beautiful. 

God  is  good,  and  all  created  things  proclaim  aloud 
that  goodness.  It  is  written  upon  the  dry  land,  it 
is  echoed  forth  in  the  voices  of  the  waters,  it  is 
whispered  by  the  winds,  it  shines  from  the  heavens, 
the  tall  forests  and  the  ripening  grain  nod  their 
assent  to  it,  and  man  finds  it  revealed  in  his  own 
spirit.  "And  God  saw  everything  he  had  made: 
and  behold  it  was  very  good."  Beyond  all  that  is 
good  is  that  noblest  ideal  creation  of  the  human 
mind, — The  Good. 

These  pure  ideal  conceptions,  The  True,  The 
Beautiful,  and  The  Good,  cannot  be  found  in  a  mind 
darkened  by  ignorance.  To  fully  realize  the  plea- 
sure which  may  be  derived  from  contemplating 
them,  culture  is  necessary;  and  there  can  be  few 
nobler  incentives  to  study. 

The  powers  in  which  our  purest  ideals  originate  are 
susceptible  of  improvement.  There  are  those  who 
having  eyes  see  not,  and  having  minds  know  not,  the 
truth,  beauty,  and  goodness  that  exist  all  about 
them.  Ignorance  shuts  up  the  senses,  and  deadens 
the  soul  to  their  influence.  Let  the  young  mind 
once  taste  of  the  pure  pleasure  which  ravishes  the 
soul  while  dwelling  in  this  ideal  world,  let  the  young 
heart  once  love  The  True,  The  Beautiful,  and  The 


STUDY.  161 

Good,  and  all  that  exemplifies  tliem,  and  the  labor 
of  study  will  become  light. 

<*  Scatter  diligently  in  susceptible  minds 
The  germs  of  the  good  and  the  beautiful! 
They  will  develop  there  to  trees,  bud,  bloom, 
And  bear  the  golden  fruits  of  Paradise." 

The  Duty  of  Self-Perfedion. — The  highest  type  of 
a  man  is  one  who  is  educated  physically,  intellect- 
ually, and  morally, — whose  whole  nature  has  re- 
ceived due  culture.  He  who  possesses  all  good 
traits  of  character  in  the  highest  perfection,  and  has 
no  bad  ones,  is  a  model  man.  After  such  a  man, 
ideal  or  real,  we  may  pattern. 

The  great  purpose  of  this  life  is  self-perfection. 
Our  duty  in  this  respect  is  written  in  unmistakable 
characters  upon  our  own  constitutions.  The  Bible 
injunction  is,  "Be  ye  perfect.''  And  for  this  end 
we  have  constantly  before  us  an  example  in  the 
beautiful  life  of  Christ. 

Pupils  should  be  made  to  feel  the  duty  of  self- 
perfection.  They  should  be  taught  the  high  pur- 
pose of  life,  the  dignity  of  the  human  character,  the 
worth  of  the  soul ;  and  they  will  learn  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  growth  in  knowledge  and  virtue,  and 
to  make  the  necessary  efforts  to  attain  it  for  them 
selves. 

The  Satisfaction  of  doing  Bight. — To  become  more 
excellent  is  to  exercise  the  highest  prerogative  of 
our  nature ;  and  none  can  doubt  that  man  rises 
in  the  scale  of  being  in  proportion  as  he  increases 
his  knowledge  of  God  and  the  works  of  His  hand. 
The  man  of  science  knows  that  he  is  making  a 
proper  use  of  his  talents  when  he  studies  plants  and 


162  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF    THE    SCHOOL. 

animals,  the  constitution  of  air  and  water,  the  struc- 
ture of  the  earth,  the  places  of  the  stars,  and  the 
mysteries  of  his  own  body  and  mind.  For  such 
purposes  his  powers  of  intellect  were  given,  and  he 
feels  that  God  will  smile  upon  such  a  use  of  them. 

It  is  right  to  study,  because  many  things  surround 
us  that  are  worthy  of  it;  because  ''Wisdom  is  more 
precious  than  rubies;"  because  the  acquisition  of 
knoAvledge  ennobles  and  elevates  the  mind;  because 
our  mental  faculties  can  only  be  strengthened  by 
exercising  them,  and  we  would  be  false  to  ourselves, 
to  our  fellow-men,  and  to  God,  who  intrusted  their 
care  to  us,  if  we  neglect  their  culture ;  and  because 
knowledge  is  profitable  in  the  affairs  of  life  and 
profitable  in  fitting  us  for  the  enjoyments  of  Heaven. 

No  effort  is  too  great  on  the  teacher's  part  to 
make  his  pupils  feel  that  theirs  is  not  a  work  that 
can  be  neglected,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
their  sacred  duty  to  become  educated.  There  is 
wanted  sadly  more  religion  in  education,  and,  per- 
haps, more  of  the  philosophy  of  education  applied 
in  religious  teaching.  Both  education  and  religion 
are  developing  processes,  both  find  something  in- 
nate in  the  human  soul  which  can  be  cultured,  and 
both  by  different  means  attempt  to  impart  that  cul- 
ture. It  is  man's  duty  to  be  religious,  it  is  his  duty 
to  educate  himself;  and  to  be  rightly  engaged  in  the 
pursuit  of  either,  brings  with  it  a  complacent  spirit 
and  a  satisfied  conscience. 

The  Prospect  of  Heavenly  Eeivard, — If  all  know- 
ledge perished  with  the  grave,  if  no  hope  could  be 
entertained  that  strength  of  mind  gained  here  will 
be  strength  gained  permanently,  one  of  the  principal 


STUDY.  163 

incentives  to  study  would  be  taken  away.  This  is 
not  the  proper  place  to  present  the  reasons  upon  which 
rest  our  hopes  of  retaining  our  mental  strength 
and  much  of  our  knowledge  in  that  state  of  immor- 
tality upon  which  we  enter  after  death ;  but  it  may 
be  said  that  if  there  were  no  other  reason  we  would 
require  all  that  strength  and  that  knowledge  simply 
to  understand  the  justice  of  our  reward  or  punish- 
ment; for  "Here  we  see  through  a  glass  darkly,  but 
there  face  to  face." 

But,  whether  the  proposition  that  we  retain  the 
knowledge  acquired  here  in  the  world  beyond  the 
grave  is  capable  of  demonstration  or  otherwise,  we 
believe  it ;  and  could  that  faith  be  stricken  from  the 
human  heart,  it  would  palsy  all  educational  effort, 
and  eclipse  the  brightest  hopes  of  the  Christian 
student. 

3.  The  Modes  of  Study. — Something  must  be 
said  in  this  connection  upon  modes  of  study ;  but 
the  design  of  the  present  book  precludes  a  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject. 

"We  may  study  to  find  out  something  new,  and 
we  may  study  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  what  is 
already  known.  The  product  attained  by  the  first 
kind  of  study  may  be  called  original  knowledge;  and 
that  by  the  second,  scholastic  knowledge;  and,  as  the 
processes  of  attaining  these  two  kinds  of  knowledge 
are  somewhat  different,  we  may  consider — 

1st.  Modes  of  Study  in  the  Attainment  of  Original 
Knowledge, 

2d.  Modes  of  Study  in  the  Attainment  of  Scholastic 
Knoioledge. 

15 


164  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL 

1st.  Modes  of  Study  in  the  Attainment  of  Original 
Knowledge, — Original  knowledge  is  of  two  kinds, — 
empirical  and  pure.  It  is  empirical  when  derived 
from  experience,  and  pure  when  it  results  from 
intuitions  of  tlie  reason.  Some  rules  will  be  given 
to  guide  tlie  student  in  his  search  for  each  kind 
of  knowledge. 

With  regard  to  the  attainment  of  empirical  know- 
ledge, the  following  rules  are  proposed  to  the  stu- 
dent : — 

He  should  set  before  himself  a  definite  object, — ^Nothing 
in  nature  is  devoid  of  interest;  but  if  one  under- 
take to  study  every  thing  he  comes  in  contact  with, 
he  can  never  make  much  progress,  and  the  know- 
ledge he  does  obtain  can  never  be  arranged  into  a 
compact  system.  A  student  who  would  make  suc- 
cessful original  investigations  must  select  a  definite 
object  of  pursuit  and  pursue  it  indefatigably. 

He  m.ust  carefully  observe  facts, — This  is  the  great 
rule  to  which  is  owing  the  rapid  growth  of  modern 
science.  All  safe  theories  must  rest  upon  the  basis 
of  ascertained  facts ;  and  these  facts  must  be  ob- 
served carefully,  patiently,  and  with  an  unbiassed 
judgment.  !N:o  other  key  will  unlock  the  secret 
treasures  of  nature. 

His  observations  must  be  correctly  recorded. — An  ob- 
served fact  may  not  be  used  for  a  scientific  purpose 
until  years  after  the  observation  was  made,  or  by 
the  one  who  made  it ;  and  hence  the  necessity  for 
a  correct  record.  Much  has  been  lost  to  science  by 
a  neglect  of  this  rule,  and  many  a  man  has  found 
the  labor  of  years  thrown  away  by  failing  to  make 
a  record  of  his  observations  sufficiently  exact. 


STUDY.  165 

Each  fact  must  he  closely  examined  and  critically  dis- 
criminated  from  other  facts. — Without  an  observance 
of  this  rule,  the  essential  and  inherent  properties  of 
things  cannot  be  ascertained,  nor  can  the  first  step 
be  taken  towards  making  a  systematic  arrangement 
of  them. 

All  facts  must  he  accurately  classified, — Classification 
is  the  handmaid  of  Science  in  all  her  departments. 
Facts  isolated  and  scattered  have  comparatively  little 
scientific  value;  but  accurate  classification  helps  the 
memory  to  retain  a  knowledge  of  them,  and  leads 
the  way  to  the  induction  of  the  laws  by  which  they 
are  bound  together. 

Generalizations  must  hefaithfidly  made. — Generaliza- 
tion is  the  crowning  work  of  empirical  science.  It 
should  never  be  done  in  haste,  nor  until  sufficient 
data  are  at  command  to  warrant  it.  Inconsiderate 
generalizations  have  been  the  bane  of  science. 
Hidden  errors  are  prone  to  mislead  at  every  step, 
and  constant  vigilance  is  required  to  guard  against 
them. 

Anticipations  of  nature's  truths  should  be  cautiously 
indulged  in. — By  the  anticipations  of  nature's  truths 
is  meant  the  forming  of  theories  before  ascertaining 
the  facts  for  which  they  are  designed  to  account, — 
speculation.  A  philosopher  who  has  carefully  studied 
the  economy  of  nature,  who  has  patiently  made  his 
way  up  frond  facts  to  principles,  whose  mind  has 
caught  glimpses  of  God's  plan  in  His  creation,  may, 
from  his  stand-point,  directly  discern  a  truth  or  a 
law  from  its  accordance  with  the  general  plan  ;  but 
one  of  the  great  lessons  of  history  is  to  teach  caution 
in  this  respect. 


166  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

"Witli  regard  to  the  attainment  of  pure  knowledge, 
a  few  rules  will  also  be  stated,  as  follows : — 

Learn  to  distinguish  necessary  and  universal  truths 
from  those  which  are  contingent, — When  deeply  in- 
vestigated, it  will  be  found  that  even  the  Inductive 
Sciences  rest  upon  a  basis — below  their  basis  of 
facts — of  necessary  and  universal  truths.  If  this  be 
doubted,  it  is  certain  that  such  truths  underlie  all 
the  Mathematical  and  Metaphysical  Sciences.  As 
a  first  step,  then,  in  the  attainment  of  pure  know- 
ledge, the  truths  of  which  it  is  composed,  or  from 
which  it  is  deduced,  must  be  distinguished  from 
other  truths.  The  question,  "What  is  an  axiom  ? 
precedes  that  as  to  whether  a  particular  proposi- 
tion is  an  axiom,  and,  indeed,  must  be  answered 
before  any  sure  progress  can  be  made  in  the  attain- 
ment of  original  knowledge  with  respect  to  the 
pure  sciences. 

Find  the  necessary  and  universal  truths  upon  ivhich  is 
founded  the  particular  subject  under  consideration, — A 
definite  object  is  as  necessary  to  success  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  pure  as  of  empirical  knowledge.  Having 
chosen  a  subject  for  investigation,  the  axioms  must 
be  found  out  of  which  the  particular  truths  sought 
for  can  be  evolved.  For  example,  the  science  of 
-<S^sthetics  is  founded  upon  the  idea  of  the  beauti- 
ful ;  and  if  any  one  desires  to  add  to  what  is  known 
on  this  subject,  he  must  commence  by  acquainting 
himself  with  all  the  axioms  which  relate  to  the 
beautiful. 

Demonstrate  the  pariicidar  truths  which  are  contained 
in  axioms, — This  is  the  principal  field  in  which  those 
labor  who  seek  pure  knowledge.     Having  found 


STUDY.  167 

the  axioms  wliicli  relate  to  such  ideas  as  those  of 
time,  space,  truth,  beauty,  and  right,  they  proceed 
to  evolve  from  them,  or  find  by  their  means,  the 
particular  truths  of  which  the  noblest  of  human 
sciences  are  made  up. 

2d.  Modes  of  Study  in  the  Attainment  of  Scholastic 
Knowledge, — The  object-matter  of  scholastic  know- 
ledge, as  the  student  finds  it,  is  contained  in  text- 
books and  oral  discourses.  Here,  known  facts  and 
principles  relating  to  particular  sciences  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  connections  in  which  they  were  ori- 
ginally found,  and  presented  in  a  form  convenient 
for  study.  The  method  of  studying  what  is  already 
known  may  or  may  not  be  the  same  as  that  by 
which  original  investigations  are  made.  A  text- 
book on  an  empirical  science,  instead  of  proceeding 
from  facts  to  principles,  may  commence  with  prin- 
ciples and  then  prove  or  illustrate  them  by  a  state- 
ment of  facts,  and  a  text-book  on  a  pure  science 
may  take  certain  truths  for  granted  and  treat  only 
of  their  applications;  both  of  which  methods  are 
impossible  in  the  study  of  what  is  unknown. 

Assuming  the  possession  of  properly  arranged 
text-books,  a  few  directions  for  the  study  of  them 
will  be  given  to  the  student. 

Begin  at  the  projper  place. — A  student  studies  a  text- 
book for  the  purpose  of  adding  the  knowledge  it 
may  contain  to  that  which  he  already  possesses. 
To  do  this  effectually,  he  must  begin  at  that  place 
in  the  book  at  which  his  own  knowledge  ends.  As 
a  general  rule,  it  is  best  to  commence  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  then  any  thing  unknown  can  be  investi- 

16* 


168  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

gated,  and  all  that  is  known  can  be  rapidly  passed 
over. 

Take  up  one  thing  at  a  time, — Several  studies  of 
different  kinds  may  be  profitably  pursued  at  the 
same  time;  but  in  tbe  preparation  of  a  particular 
lesson  it  is  best  to  take  up  one  thing  at  a  time. 
The  whole  lesson  may  be  at  first  read  over  to  as- 
certain its  general  scope ;  but  afterwards  all  the 
powers  of  the  mind  should  be  concentrated  upon 
each  part  in  succession.  I  am  satisfied  that  many 
students  fail  from  want  of  attention  to  this  point. 
Hurried,  desultory  study  never  yet  made  a  scholar. 

Pursue  a  logical  order. — Even  children  exhibit  a 
taste  for  related  facts.  Connected  narratives  are  most 
pleasing  to  the  young  mind.  And  all  sciences  have 
a  logical  order.  If  such  an  order  be  followed  in 
study,  progress  will  be  more  rapid,  the  subject  will 
be  better  understood,  and  the  knowledge  acquired 
will  be  longer  retained.  The  rule  is  a  very  im- 
portant one. 

Comprehend  every  thing  thoroughly. — ^What  is  half 
understood  is  worth  little,  either  for  discipline  or  for 
use.  A  student  should  be  content  with  nothing  less 
than  the  complete  mastery  in  all  its  parts  of  every 
subject  he  undertakes  to  study.  Thoroughness  in 
study  requires  close  attention  to  be  paid,  not  only 
to  the  thought,  but  to  the  language  in  which  it  is 
expressed.  Great  caution  should  be  observed  in 
coming  to  fixed  conclusions  upon  controverted 
points.  Prejudices  should  be  guarded  against,  while 
the  severest  tests  of  truth  should  be  applied. 

Fix  what  is  learned  in  the  mind. — What  is  well 
understood  is  not  apt  to  be  forgotten ;  still,  means 


STUDY.  169 

should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  fruit  of 
hard  study.  Knowledge  is  fixed  in  the  mind  by 
repetition  and  reviews,  by  connecting  its  parts 
together  by  natural  associations,  and  by  making 
frequent  applications  of  it. 

Acquire  the  power  of  giving  fit  expression  to  what  is 
learned, — Light  hid  under  a  bushel  is  of  little  benefit; 
and,  if  otherwise,  we  are  never  quite  sure  we  know 
a  thing  ourselves  until  we  can  explain  it  to  an- 
other. 

4.  The  Characteristics  of  the  Student. — Study 
has  its  objects  to  be  attained,  its  incentives  to  prompt 
to  their  attainment,  and  its  modes  of  attaining  them ; 
but  the  student  must  possess  certain  personal  cha- 
racteristics, or  the  worth  of  these  objects  will  not 
be  properly  appreciated,  the  force  of  these  incen- 
tives will  not  awaken  the  requisite  energy  to  attain 
them,  these  modes  of  procedure  will  not  be  the 
most  judicious. 

Some  of  the  most  important  of  these  characteris- 
tics are  the  following : — 

1st.  Health. 
2d.   Natural  Ability, 
8d.   Love  of  Learning. 
4th.  An  elevated  Ideal. 
5th.  Self-Beliance.  ^ 

6th.  Perseverance. 
7th.  The  Power  of  Concentration. 
8th.  Enthusiasm. 
9th.  Patience. 
10th.  Humility. 


170  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

Health. — Such  is  tlie  intimate  connection  between 
body  and  mind,  that  the  healthy  condition  of  the 
former  is  necessary  to  the  healthy  activity  of  the 
latter.  A  sound  mind  can  hardly  exist  in  an  un- 
sound body.  Health,  therefore,  is  necessary  to  the 
student;  and  he  should  be  temperate  in  diet  and 
free  from  bad  habits  ;  he  should  enjoy  the  amount 
of  sleep  nature  requires,  breathe  pure  air,  and  take 
ample  exercise.  An  erroneous  Mysticism  taught 
that  the  good  of  the  soul  is  consulted  by  the  morti- 
fication of  the  body;  the  Epicureans,  equally  mis- 
taken, held  that  the  highest  good  consists  in  sensual 
pleasures ;  but  a  better-founded  philosophy  incul- 
cates the  doctrine  that  the  body  and  soul  belong  to 
one  being  and  are  mutually  dependent,  and  that  the 
highest  good  of  either  can  be  attained  only  through 
the  healthy  condition  of  the  other. 

Bodily  health  and  bodily  comfort  are  necessary 
to  the  successful  student,  and  he  should  be  carefully 
guarded  from  all  influences  that  are  calculated  to 
interfere  with  them. 

Natural  Ability. — There  may  be  persons  whom  no 
eflbrt  could  make  scholars ;  but  their  numbers  are 
not  so  great  as  is  generally  estimated.  The  public 
have  not  yet  fully  realized  what  may  be  accom- 
plished educationally  by  a  determined  purpose  and 
skilfully  applie^  labor ;  but,  when  they  do,  it  will  be 
found  that  light  may  be  made  to  find  its  way  into 
understandings  whose  darkness  has  seemed  irreme- 
diable. Our  institutions  for  feeble-minded  children 
have  shown  that  even  idiots  are  capable  of  receiving 
much  instruction. 

But,  while  all  minds  admit  some  degree  of  edu- 


STUDY.  171 

cation,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  those  who  have 
received  one  talent  can  so  improve  it  as  to  be  able 
to  place  themselves  on  an  intellectual  equality  with 
those  who  have  improved  their  ten  talents.  At 
least  fair  natural  ability  is  necessary  to  one  who  can 
reasonably  hope  to  attain  eminence  as  a  scholar. 

Love  of  Learning, — ^ITatural  talents  will  not  alone 
suffice  to  make  a  scholar.  These  must  be  well 
used;  and  no  other  impulse  is  strong  enough  to 
prompt  that  use  but  a  love  of  learning.  Isocrates 
had  written  in  golden  letters  over  the  entrance  to 
his  school  this  sentence:  '^If  thou  love  learning, 
thou  shalt  attain  to  much  learning."  Without  it, 
no  earnest,  persistent,  mind-invigorating  eflbrts  will 
be  made  to  obtain  knowledge.  "Without  it,  we  may 
build  up  in  the  mind  a  kind  of  educational  super- 
structure ;  but  it  is  only  a  piece  of  mechanism,  not 
a  healthy  growth.  Without  it,  indeed,  what  know- 
ledge may  be  acquired  lies  cold  in  the  understand- 
ing, and  furnishes  no  nourishment  to  the  soul. 

An  elevated  Ideal, — The  ideal  of  an  artist  must  be 
elevated  in  order  to  paint  forms  of  beauty  upon 
canvas  or  chisel  them  from  marble ;  so  a  student's 
ideal  of  the  worth  of  knowledge  and  the  dignity  of 
cultured  human  character  must  be  elevated  before 
he  can  do  any  thing  effectually  to  attain  that  ideal 
in  himself.  People  become  like  the  gods  they 
worship.  If  our  ideals  be  pure,  we  will  be  pure. 
Our  thoughts  lead  captive  our  wills.  With  a  low 
ideal  of  the  purpose  of  life,  a  young  man  will  read 
bad  books  and  seek  bad  society,  and  even  tinge  the 
purest  truth  with  the  dark  colors  of  his  unchaste 
imagination.     With  such  an  ideal,  no  man  ever  ac- 


172      THE  EMPLOYMENTS  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

complished  any  tiling  noble.  I^o  sncli  man  ever  left 
behind  him  a  history  that  finds  admirers  among  the 
good.  Let  all  effort  be  made,  then,  to  have  students 
aim  high,  and  pioneer  their  course  through  life  with 
a  lofty  ideal  of  its  true  end.  Set  before  their  ima- 
ginations a  model  scholar,  and  it  will  be  a  constant 
incentive  to  them  to  imitate  his  virtues. 

Self-reliance, — A  scholar  was  never  made  by  de- 
pending upon  others.  Self-work  is  the  necessary 
condition  of  self-advancement.  Every  time  a  pupil 
receives  assistance  which  by  his  own  exertions  he 
could  have  dispensed  with,  he  loses  an  opportunity 
of  strengthening  himself:  he  does  worse,  for  he 
will  thus  learn  to  depend  upon  others.  One  person 
might  as  well  expect  another  to  appease  his  hunger 
by  eating  for  him,  as  to  enable  him  to  think  by 
doing  his  thinking.  The  tendency  of  our  teaching 
at  this  time  is  to  explain,  illustrate,  and  simplify  too 
much ;  and  thus  we  fail  to  inure  our  pupils  to  that 
sturdy  self-reliance  which  loves  to  test  its  strength 
by  striving  to  do  hard  things. 

Teachers  give  too  much  help  to  their  pupils ;  but 
probably  more  harm  is  done  by  the  help  some  pupils 
give  to  others.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  with 
schools  in  which  one-half  of  the  pupils  do  nearly 
all  the  thinking  for  the  other  half;  and  this  is  an 
evil  that  requires  great  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  remedy.  Keys  to  works  on  Mathema- 
tics, and  text-books  in  which  the  questions  are  all 
answered,  are  a  nuisance  in  a  school-room. 

Perseverance. — A  student  must  not  only  rely  upon 
himself  to  do  his  own  work,  but  he  must  persevere 
in  the  doing  of  it.     ISo  great  undertaking  can  be 


STUDY.  173 

aecomplislied  without  perseverance ;  but  all  great 
undertakings  can  be  accomplisbed  with  it.  All 
history  illustrates  this  truth. 

It  is  not  an  easy  task  to  become  learned.  ISio 
scholar  was  ever  made  except  by  long-continued  and 
earnest  effort.  Some  may  be  endowed  with  natural 
talents  superior  to  others,  but  still  the  maxim  is  true, 
*'No  excellence  without  labor." 

The  Power  of  Concentration. — A  general  perseve- 
rance in  study  even  is  not  sufficient  to  make  scholars. 
The  student  must  have  the  power  of  mental  concen- 
tration. It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  men  who  study 
for  themselves,  and  study  diligently,  and  yet  who 
never  attain  a  high  position  as  scholars,  for  the 
reason  that  they  study  every  thing  a  little  and  nothing 
much.  The  rays  of  the  sun  scattered  all  about  the 
surface  of  an  object  will  produce  no  marked  eftect; 
but  bring  them  to  a  focus,  and  they  may  fuse  or 
burn  it.  It  is  so  in  study.  A  student  to  be  suc- 
cessful must  have  command  of  his  powers.  He 
must  be  able  to  concentrate  them  upon  the  subject 
before  him,  and  suffer  nothing  to  divert  his  atten- 
tion. 

Too  much  value  cannot  be  attached  to  sj^stem  in 
study: — system  in  husbanding  the  mind's  forces  for 
the  work;  system  in  preparing  the  subject-matter 
to  be  studied;  system  in  arranging  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  task  is  to  be  performed ; 
system  in  bringing  to  bear  upon  it  the  power  of  a 
concentrated  mental  energy. 

Enthusiasm, — The  word  student  is  derived  from  a 
Latin  root  signifying  zeal^  earnestness. 

All    great    men    are  in  their  way  enthusiasts. 


174  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

"Without  it  there  would  not  be  full  devotion  to  a 
work.  Columbus,  Luther,  Washington,  would  have 
accomplished  little  without  enthusiasm. 

Enthusiasm  is  warmth  of  interest  in  an  under- 
taking, and  earnest  desire  to  accomplish  some 
object;  and  a  student  who  is  fired  by  enthusiasm 
finds  his  task  easy  and  pleasant.  He  does  not  study 
because  he  must.  His  recitations  are  not  cold  and 
formal.  Time  never  seems  to  hang  heavy  upon  his 
hands.  Melancholy  never  broods  over  him,  nor 
does  discontent  disturb  his  meditations.  He  loves 
his  work,  and  willingly  devotes  his  time  and  strength 
to  its  performance.  Unexpected  pleasures  meet  him 
at  every  step.  Paths  that  others  have  found  toil- 
some, he  pursues  with  delight.  Everywhere  he 
finds  beautiful  scenery,  flowers  to  pluck,  and  birds 
to  cheer  him  with  their  music. 

Patience, — How  few  have  schooled  themselves  to 
be  patient  when  difliculties  are  encountered !  How 
few  do  their  best,  and  are  then  content  with  the 
fruit  vouchsafed  by  Heaven  !  How  few  have  learned 
^^to  labor  and  to  wait"  ! 

Self-reliance  sometimes  brings  burdens  that  de- 
pendent shoulders  will  not  bear;  perseverance 
pledges  the  whole  soul  to  the  performance  of  a  task 
whose  difliculties  will  scarcely  yield  to  the  most 
persistent  eftbrts ;  enthusiasm  sends  all  the  forces 
of  our  nature  out  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  work 
which  cannot  be  performed,  and  the  heart  is  sad- 
dened :  these  are  all  occasions  for  the  exercise  of 
patience.  The  student  will  need  it  every  day.  A 
want  of  success  may  disappoint,  it  must  not  dis- 
courage, him. 


RECITATION.  *  175 

Humility, — Scholars  have  been  accused  of  pride. 
Learning  is  supposed  by  some  to  foster  conceit  and 
haughtiness.  With  respect  to  the  truly  learned, 
these  opinions  are  always  false.  A  proud  and 
haughty  spirit  would  never  have  patience  to  do  the 
work  of  a  student.  He  would  try  to  reach  the  goal 
of  learning  by  some  grand  leap,  and  disdain  the 
slow  and  toilsome  way  by  which  alone  it  can  be 
approached.  It  follows  that  the  true  effect  of 
learning  is  humility.     "With  the  lowly  is  wisdom." 

Nature  never  defers  to  her  investigators.  She  never 
waits  upon  men  and  proffers  her  truths.  They  must 
knock  humbly  at  her  door  before  she  will  open  it 
and  reveal  her  secrets.  She  turns  away  her  face 
from  those  who  deem  themselves  already  wise. 

No  one  can  be  a  student  without  comparing  the 
little  that  is  known  with  the  immensity  of  that  which 
is  unknown.  We  are  surrounded  with  mysteries. 
By  the  light  of  science  we  can  travel  a  few  steps  in 
all  directions ;  but  beyond  this  all  is  profound  dark- 
ness ;  and,  seeing  it,  we  realize  our  own  littleness, 
and  the  greatness  of  the  Infinite :  like  jNTewton,  we 
become  as  children  picking  up  pebbles  along  the 
shore  of  an  unexplored  ocean. 

IT.  Recitation. — The  recitation  is  the  most  deli- 
cate part  of  the  school-machinery.  All  else  is  but 
a  preparation  for  it.  A  failure  here  is  a  failure 
everywhere.  The  gift  of  governing  well  is  an  en- 
viable one,  but  good  order  in  a  school  is  an  end 
secondary  to  that  of  securing  good  recitations.  No 
teacher  can  make  good  scholars  who  does  not 
manage  the  recitation  skilfully.     It  is  in  thisi  he  will 

17 


176  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

need  his  greatest  tact;  for  lie  has  much  to  lose  or 
much  to  gain.  K  he  fail,  he  will  have  taught  his 
pupils  to  hate  school  and  study,  will  have  paralyzed 
their  efforts  to  learn,  and  will  have  created  habits 
that  must  continue  to  cripple  their  energies  through 
life.  If  he  succeed,  he  will  have  the  proud  satis- 
faction of  seeing  the  budding  faculties  of  the  human 
soul  bloom  under  the  culture  of  his  hands;  and 
happy  hearts,  made  wiser  and  better,  will  thank  him 
for  his  kindness  and  care. 

What  it  is  desirable  to  say  concerning  the  recita- 
tion may  be  embraced  under  the  following  heads : — 

1.  The  Objects  of  the  Kecitation. 

2.  The  Requisites  of  the  Recitation. 

3.  The  Methods  of  conducting  the  Recitation. 

4.  The  Preparation  for  the  Recitation. 

1.  The  Objects  of  the  Recitation. — ^Little  is  ever 
accomplished  by  persons  who  have  no  definite  aim. 
One  meets  with  poor  success  in  attempting  to  catch 
objects  in  the  dark.  Hence  it  is  well  to  determine 
at  once  the  chief  objects  of  the  recitation. 

1st.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  estimate  the  daily  progress  of  his  pupils, — If  a  lesson 
be  assigned  to  a  class  of  pupils,  many  of  them  will 
work  hard  to  prepare  it,  and  it  is  just  that  they 
should  have  credit  for  it  from  teacher  and  class- 
mates ;  some,  it  may  be,  will  idle  away  their  time, 
and  it  is  entirely  proper  that  a  public  failure  and 
consequent  shame  should  follow.  The  prospect  of 
the  coming  responsibilities  of  the  recitation  will  tend 
to  induce  pupils  to  make  the  necessary  preparation 


KECITATION.  177 

to  meet  them.  At  the  recitation  the  teacher  can 
estimate  the  daily  progress  of  his  pupils;  and  a 
knowledge  of  this  fact  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
makes  that  daily  progress  more  rapid. 

Besides,  the  recitation  enables  the  teacher  to  in- 
spect his  own  and  his  pupils'  work,  to  measure  the 
intellectual  growth  of  his  pupils,  to  correct  the 
errors  into  which  they  may  have  fallen,  and  to 
present  judiciously  matter  for  future  lessons.  The 
master-workman  frequently  examines  every  part 
of  an  edifice  which  he  is  engaged  in  erecting.  The 
horticulturist  watches  daily  the  plants  in  his  garden, 
lest  some  thievish  weed  may  rob  them  of  nourish- 
ment or  some  hungry  worm  destroy  their  promised 
fruitage.  It  is  thus  the  teacher  meets  his  class  and 
cares  for  it. 

2d.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  pupils 
to  tell  what  they  know. — All  admit  that  it  is  an  im- 
portant thing  to  speak  well, — to  possess  the  power 
of  making  what  we  know  available  in  words.  It  is 
even  doubtful  whether  we  can  be  said  fully  to  know 
a  thing,  until  we  can  embody  our  thoughts  of  it  in 
the  form  of  words.  Students  in  reciting  frequently 
rise,  confident  of  their  ability  to  answer  a  question, 
but  find,  when  they  come  to  state  their  knowledge 
of  it,  that  they  cannot  set  forth  their  dim  ideas  in 
the  clear  light  of  words,  and  then  realize  that  the 
language  of  a  lesson  must  be  studied,  as  well  as  the 
matter. 

The  constant  training  of  the  recitation  is  neces- 
sary to  make  clear,  precise,  strong  speakers, — speak- 
ers that  exhaust  a  subject  and  reason  logically  about 
it.     Next  to  good  thinkers,  we  want  good  talkers; 


178  THE  EMPLOYMENTS   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

and  the  recitation  furnishes  one  of  the  best  oppor- 
tunities of  making  them, — opportunities  that  teachers 
who  are  awake  to  the  best  interests  of  their  classes 
will  not  overlook.  It  is  not  enough  for  a  pupil  to 
blunder  out  the  answer  to  a  question  among  many 
things  that  have  no  bearing  upon  the  subject,  and 
some  th^t  have  no  bearing  on  any  subject;  it  is  not 
enough  for  the  teacher  to  perceive,  through  the  fog 
of  words,  that  the  pupil  has  the  right  idea ;  but  the 
thought  should  be  stated  in  appropriate  language. 

He  who  studies  by  himself  may  become  a  good 
scholar,  but  his  progress  will  be  less  rapid,  his 
knowledge  less  general  and  thorough,  and  much 
less  available,  than  that  of  one  who  enjoys  the 
advantages  of  attending  well-conducted  recitations. 
One  of  the  principal  reasons  is  that  studying  with- 
out a  teacher  does  not  furnish  a  pupil  with  an  op- 
portunity of  telling  what  he  learns. 

3d.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  pupils 
to  acquire  well-founded  self-confidence. — Many  persons 
may  be  found  who  are  too  timid  to  give  an  opinion 
in  public.  They  may  feel  that  they  know  as  well  as 
others,  but  they  do  not  like  to  say.  Reciting  before 
a  teacher  in  a  class  will  tend  to  overcome  this 
excessive  timidity. 

There  are  persons,  too,  in  every  community  who 
speak  without  thinking,  who  rashly  venture  an 
opinion  on  every  subject,  whether  they  have  inves- 
tigated it  or  not.  The  close  criticism  of  teacher  and 
classmates  surely  is  needed  to  protect  the  public 
from  the  infliction  of  mere  babblings  and  to  induce 
in  the  young  a  wellfounded  self-confidence. 

4th.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  pu- 


RECITATION.  179 

pils  to  fix  in  their  minds  what  they  learn. — The  prin- 
ciple is  an  obvious  one,  that  the  more  a  subject  is 
thought  about,  the  better  it  will  be  understood  and 
the  longer  it  will  be  remembered.  The  recitation 
induces  additional  thought.  It  keeps  the  subject 
longer  before  the  mind. 

But  this  is  not  the  only  advantage  of  the  same 
kind  gained  by  the  recitation.  All  persons  have 
experienced  the  fact  that  their  newly  acquired 
knowledge  seems  more  clear  and  is  more  deeply 
impressed  upon  the  mind  after  a  conversation  with 
a  friend  respecting  it.  Public  speakers  understand 
a  subject  after  having  spoken  upon  it,  better  than 
before.    The  effect  of  the  recitation  is  similar. 

5th.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  explain  and  illustrate  the  lesson,  and  add  new  matter  to 
it, — A  teacher  ought  to  know  all  that  the  text-book 
used  says  upon  the  subject  of  a  lesson,  and  ought 
to  be  able  to  ascertain  whether  the  pupils  know  it ; 
but  the  recitation  furnishes  him  an  opportunity  to 
do  more  than  this.  He  must  be  able  to  explain  and 
illustrate  the  lesson,  and  add  new  matter  to  it.  He 
must  make  his  pupils  feel  that  he  knows  more  than 
is  contained  in  the  text-book.  He  should  answer 
questions,  elucidate  hard  points,  multiply  facts, 
describe  additional  phenomena,  give  the  opinions 
of  other  authors,  and  suggest  new  arguments  and 
new  trains  of  thought.  Text-books  should  pur- 
posely leave  much  unsaid,  for  knowledge  fresh 
from  the  lips  of  a  teacher  has  great  attractions  for 
the  young,  and  leaves  lasting  impressions  upon 
them. 

6th.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  teacher 

17* 


180  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

to  keep  before  the  minds  of  his  pupils  proper  incentives  to 
study. — Nowhere  else  does  the  teacher  come  so  close 
to  his  pupils  as  in  the  recitation.  ITowhere  else  is 
there  such  an  intimate  sympathy  between  him  and 
them.  Their  minds  are  then  open  to  receive  in- 
struction, their  hearts  ready  to  be  impressed.  Here, 
if  anywhere,  a  love  of  learning  can  be  created,  and 
the  mind's  whole  energies  summoned  to  the  noble 
work  of  obtaining  an  education. 

There  are  certain  moral  qualities  necessary  to 
success  in  study.  These  the  recitation  furnishes 
a  fit  opportunity  of  strengthening.  Industry,  per- 
severance, self-reliance,  are  virtues  with  respect  to 
which  the  teacher  in  the  class-room  should  manifest 
a  just  appreciation.  The  character  can  then  be 
cultured. 

7th.  It  is  an  object  of  the  recitation  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  impart  moral  instruction. — When  moral  instruction 
is  attempted  to  be  formally  given,  the  heart  may 
steel  itself  against  it.  Such  instruction  can  be  given 
incidentally  with  more  effect,  and  the  recitation 
furnishes  the  opportunity.  A  teacher  alive  to  the 
importance  of  this  work  will  meet  occasions,  during 
the  progress  of  every  lesson,  when  he  can  call  atten- 
tion to  a  moral  truth  or  give  strength  to  a  moral 
habit.  He  can  scatter,  now  and  then,  a  good  seed 
which  will  take  root  in  the  fruitful  soil  that  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  class  have  made  fallow.  A  good 
thought  or  a  noble  purpose  may  even  find  sustenance 
in  a  hard  heart,  as  a  seed  lodged  on  a  rock  may 
germinate  within  its  rocky  crevices  and  obtain  suffi- 
cient nourishment  to  grow.  But  to  impart  moral 
instruction  properly  requires  the  most  delicate  man- 


RECITATION.  181 

agement.  'No  instrument  of  art  is  so  complex  as  the 
human  mind, — none  so  nicely  attuned  as  the  human 
heart :  what  skill  then,  is  required  to  place  man  m 
harmony  with  his  fellow-men  and  at  peace  with 
God! 

2.  The  Requisites  of  the  Eecitation. — The  ob- 
jects of  the  recitation  cannot  be  attained  unless 
certain  conditions  are  supplied.  Such  of  these  as 
are  not  more  appropriately  named  elsewhere,  are — 

1st.  A  proper  Place, — The  place  of  the  recitation 
ought  to  be  a  room  sufficiently  large  for  the  pur- 
pose, suitable  as  to  temperature,  well  lighted,  well 
ventilated,  and  tastefully  furnished.  If  these  con- 
ditions are  wanting,  the  recitation  will  lack  some- 
thing in  interest  and  something  in  good  results. 
Students  dislike  to  be  driven  to  a  little,  gloomy, 
untidy  room,  and  hurry  away  from  it  as  soon  as 
permitted.  Let  recitation-rooms  be  made  inviting, 
and  each  seat  and  each  article  of  furniture  in  them 
will  awaken  pleasant  associations ;  there  will  come 
to  be  a  genius  loci  which  invokes  to  study  and  seems 
to  applaud  the  triumphs  of  the  student. 

With  a  little  care,  a  teacher  can  make  even  an 
indifferent  room  a  pleasant  one ;  and  the  gratif}  ing 
change  which  can  thus  be  produced  is  well  wurth 
the  effort. 

What  has  been  said  above  has  reference  to  schools 
having  rooms  specially  appropriated  for  recitations ; 
and,  where  possible,  this  is  much  the  best  arrange- 
ment. A  large  majority  of  the  Common  Schools 
in  rural  districts,  however,  are  taught  by  a  single 
teacher,  and,  of  course,  the  recitations  must  take 
place  in  the  study-room.    In  this  case,  there  should 


182  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

be  sufficient  space  allowed  to  enable  the  class  en- 
gaged in  reciting,  to  seat  themselves  comfortably 
and  engage  freely  in  their  work;  and  this  space 
ought  to  be  so  located  as  to  prevent,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  recitation  from  interrupting  those  engaged 
in  study  or  from  being  interrupted  by  them,  and  to 
give  the  teacher  the  best  opportunity  of  overlook- 
ing the  school  while  he  conducts  the  exercises  of  a 
class.  The  best  place  for  the  recitation-seats,  pro- 
bably, is  immediately  in  front  of  the  teacher's  plat- 
form, as  shown  in  the  diagrams  given  in  a  preceding 
chapter,  though,  for  some  reasons,  it  might  be  well 
to  have  such  seats  placed  at  the  end  of  the  school- 
room opposite  this  platform. 

2d.  Suitable  Apparatus. — The  teacher  needs  tools.. 
He  can  work  to  much  better  advantage  when  he 
has  blackboards,  maps,  globes,  charts,  pictures, 
specimens  of  objects,  and  other  kinds  of  apparatus, 
than  he  can  without  them.  Impressions  made 
through  the  sense  of  sight  are  the  most  easily  under- 
stood and  the  most  lasting.  It  is  true  that  a  teacher 
may  teach  without  apparatus ;  but  so  may  land  be 
cultivated  without  ploughs,  and  the  habitations  of 
men  be  erected  without  saws  and  planes. 

Kecitation-rooms  may  be  arranged  with  reference 
to  the  kind  of  studies  which  are  taught  in  them. 
Mathematical  recitation-rooms  might  be  provided 
with  mathematical  apparatus ;  rooms  for  the  classics, 
with  maps  and  charts  of  ancient  countries  and  anti- 
quities ;  rooms  for  natural  science,  with  philosophi- 
cal apparatus  and  cabinets  of  specimens;  and  so  of 
those  for  other  departments  of  study.  Rooms  thus 
arranged  would  teach  much  themselves. 


RECITATION.  18B 

3d.  Quiet — People  do  things  best  who  do  one  thing 
at  a  time.  A  teacher  cannot  well  afford  to  risk  a 
loss  of  interest  in  a  recitation  in  consequence  of 
having  to  attend  to  other  duties  while  conducting 
it.  It  is  not  very  uncommon  to  see  teachers  inter- 
rupted every  moment,  while  hearing  a  recitation, 
with  requests  to  mend  pens,  to  answer  questions,  to 
redress  grievances,  or  by  the  necessity  of  preserving 
order.  In  such  circumstances,  no  teacher  can  do 
himself  or  his  class  justice.  The  class  during  a 
recitation  must  have  his  undivided  attention ;  and 
it  is  almost  as  great  an  evil  for  the  attention  of  the 
class  to  be  distracted. 

If  a  school  is  subject  to  so  loose  a  discipline 
that  such  interruptions  are  unavoidable,  the  teacher 
had  better  discontinue  all  recitations  until  order  can 
be  restored,  or  resign  his  position  that  it  may  be 
filled  by  some  one  more  competent.  Slight  inter- 
ruptions, however,  will  occur  under  the  best  man- 
agement, when  recitations  are  heard  in  school-rooms 
where  some  pupils  study  while  others  recite.  It  is 
only  in  recitation-rooms  that  the  teacher  and  his 
class  are  wholly  free  from  noise  and  interruptions, 
and  it  is  only  then  that  the  best  recitation-work  can 
be  done. 

4th.  Sufficient  Time. — Theoretically,  the  recitation 
should  be  sufficiently  long  to  enable  the  pupils  to 
tell  what  they  know  about  the  lesson,  and  to  enable 
the  teacher  to  add  what  further  concerning  it  it  is 
well  for  them  to  know.  Practically,  the  length  of 
recitations  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  work  to 
be  done  in  the  school  where  they  are  conducted,  and 
the  circumstances  which  control  its  distribution.  In 


184  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

most  schools,  practice  cannot  be  made  to  conform 
to  theory ;  and  if  placed  in  circumstances  wherein 
he  cannot  obtain  all  the  time  he  desires  for  his 
recitations,  the  teacher  must  obtain  all  the  time  he 
can,  and  then  make  good  use  of  it.  Skill  will 
enable  a  teacher  to  greatly  economize  time  in  con- 
ducting recitations.  With  suitable  blackboards,  a 
teacher  can  have  some  pupils  write  out  parts  of  the 
lesson  while  others  recite  orally ;  and,  if  the  whole 
lesson  cannot  be  recited,  the  most  important  parts 
of  it  should  be  considered,  and  the  rest  omitted, 

3.  The  Methods  of  conducting  the  Eecitation. 
— All  recitations  should  be  so  conducted  as  to  effect 
the  object  for  the  attainment  of  which  they  are  de- 
signed; but  as  the  attaining  of  some  of  these  objects 
depends  upon  the  personal  character,  manner,  and 
skill  of  the  teacher,  we  will  consider  here  only  those 
methods  of  conducting  recitations  which  relate  to 
the  following  points : — 

1st.  Imparting  Knowledge. 
2d.   Testing  Knowledge. 
3d,  Proving  Knowledge. 
4th.  Correcting  Errors. 

It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  these  topics  embrace 
the  chief  work  of  the  Recitation. 

1st.  Imparting  Knowledge. — Four  modes  of  impart- 
ing knowledge  will  be  named, — that  by  lectures^  that 
by  text-books^  that  by  dialogues^  and  that  by  catechi- 
zation. 

Knowledge  is  imparted  by  lectures  where  the 
teacher  speaks  and  the  pupils  listen  in  silence.     As 


RECITATION.  185 

a  mode  of  instruction,  the  lecture  is  used  in  all  kinds 
and  grades  of  schools,  and  it  has  certain  advantages 
over  every  other  mode. 

One  of  these  advantages  is  that  oral  instruction 
is  more  impressive  than  that  of  books.  We  attend 
to  what  we  hear  more  closely  than  to  what  we  read. 
Knowledge  communicated  orally,  too,  seems  more 
new  and  fresh  than  knowledge  gained  in  any  other 
manner,  and,  consequently,  is  more  attractive.  Be- 
sides, in  the  lecture,  knowledge  is  presented  with 
all  the  auxiliaries  of  voice,  gesture,  expresssion  of 
countenance,  and  words.  These  aid  the  thought  in 
making  an  impression. 

Another  advantage  is  that  the  knowledge  com- 
municated in  lectures  is  more  apt  to  be  original  than 
that  which  is  found  in  books.  A  lecturer  cannot 
repeat  merely  what  others  have  said  or  written;  he 
must  think  for  himself;  and,  thinking  for  himself, 
he  will  have  something  original  to  present  to  his 
pupils  at  every  recitation.  The  most  eminent 
scholars  the  world  has  ever  seen  were  lecturers,  and 
their  scholarship  may,  in  some  measure  at  least,  be 
attributed  to  the  circumstances  of  the  lecture- 
room. 

Young  children  who  cannot  read  must  be  taught 
orally.  A  formal  lecture  before  them  would  be  out 
of  place ;  but  they  can  be  taught  much  by  simply 
talking  to  them.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  im- 
part to  pupils  a  knowledge  of  subjects  upon  which 
no  proper  text-books  have  been  written ;  and  in  such 
cases  resort  must  be  had  to  the  lecture-method  of 
instruction.  The  higher  classes  at  our  colleges  and 
universities  are  supposed  to  be  familiar  with  the 


186  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF    THE   SCHOOL. 

text-books  wMch.  treat  of  the  subjects  that  engage 
their  attention ;  and  the  professors  in  these  institu- 
tions use  lectures  to  make  them  acquainted  with 
new  matter  and  to  awaken  their  interest  in  original 
investigations.  In  connection  with  all  the  methods 
of  imparting  knowledge,  a  teacher  must  give  much 
oral  instruction, — sometimes  make  a  simple  sug- 
gestion, sometimes  state  a  fact,  and  sometimes  dis- 
cuss a  principle,  as  the  occasion  may  demand. 

If  a  teacher  confine  himself  to  lecturing,  he  will 
not  be  able  to  estimate  very  fairly  the  progress  of 
his  pupils,  he  will  furnish  them  little  opportunity 
of  telling  what  they  know  or  of  having  their  mistakes 
corrected,  and  he  will  render  impossible  that  repe- 
tition of  what  is  learned  which  is  necessary  to  fix 
it  firmly  in  the  mind ;  and  these,  we  have  seen,  are 
important  objects  of  the  recitation.  Something  can 
be  done,  however,  to  obviate  these  objections,  by 
requiring  pupils  to  take  notes  of  the  lectures  they 
listen  to,  and  undergo  periodical  examinations  with 
respect  to  their  subject-matter. 

Knowledge  is  gained  from  text-books  when  we 
read  or  study  them.  The  books  used  for  study  in 
school-classes  are  usually  outlines  of  the  subjects 
upon  which  they  treat;  but  it  is  generally  expected 
that  students  will  read,  in  connection  with  them, 
other  books  containing  full  information.  Text- 
books, rightly  used,  can  be  made  a  valuable  auxi- 
liary in  the  work  of  imparting  knowledge. 

The  knowledge  contained  in  text-books  is  gene- 
rally more  reliable  than  that  which  is  communicated 
by  lectures.  ''"Writing  makes  an  exact  man,'*  says 
Bacon;   and  all   experience   shows   that  men  will 


KECITATION.  187 

use  hasty  expressions  in  speaking  that  they  would 
discard  in  writing.  Text-books,  too,  are  apt  to 
present  a  subject  in  a  more  methodical  manner 
than  is  the  case  when  it  is  presented  orally. 

Text-books  enable  pupils  to  prepare  their  lessons 
at  all  times.  If  the  instruction  in  a  school  is  wholly 
oral,  pupils  must  wait  until  they  hear  the  lecture 
before  they  can  study  it ;  but  if  they  have  text- 
books, no  time  need  be  lost.  This  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  a  school  composed  of  several  classes. 

When  pupils  are  compelled  to  rely  for  informa- 
tion concerning  particular  subjects  upon  the  im- 
pressions they  receive  at  a  lecture,  or  the  hurried 
notes  they  may  be  able  to  take  of  it  during  its 
delivery,  their  knowledge  is  apt  to  be  inaccurate, 
incomplete,  and  wanting  in  method.  To  obviate 
such  difficulties,  text-books  may  be  made  useful  to 
students. 

The  fixed  arrangement  and  the  fixed  expressions 
of  a  text-book  enable  learners  to  stop  and  think ; 
but  the  ^'winged  words''  of  oral  discourse  must  be 
caught  as  they  fly ;  and  thus  the  connections  of  the 
subject  may  be  lost  or  its  points  be  misunderstood. 

Text-books,  however,  may  be  used  to  the  great 
detriment  of  learners;  but  their  general  uses  and 
abuses  are  discussed  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 

Knowledge  may  be  acquired  by  means  of  a  con- 
versation or  dialogue  carried  on  between  two  or 
more  persons.  The  dialogue  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  communicating  and  obtaining  information 
in  the  family,  in  the  social  circle,  and  in  scientific 
associations.  Its  use  is  more  appropriate,  doubtless, 
amorg  equals ;  but  a  teacher  can  greatly  benefit  his 

IS 


188  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

• 

pupils  by  sometimes  relaxing  the  forms  of  the  reci- 
tation, and  permitting  his  pupils  to  ask  him  ques- 
tions. He  can  also  take  them  with  him  upon  ex- 
.  cursions,  and  on  the  way  engage  in  profitable  dis- 
course with  them. 

It  was  principally  in  the  form  of  dialogues  that 
the  learned  men  of  ancient  Greece  taught  in  the 
porches  and  gardens  of  Athens.  Their  disputa- 
tions were  not  carried  on,  as  is  generally  supposed, 
for  the  purpose  of  concealing  the  truth,  but  mostly 
to  help  one  another  find  it.  It  was  thus  Socrates 
conversed  with  his  friends  and  with  the  Sophists, 
though  his  method  became  sometimes  more  cate- 
chetical than  dialogical. 

Knowledge  may  be  imparted  to  pupils  by  cate- 
chizing them,  or  asking  them  questions.  Questions 
may  be  asked  to  enable  the  teacher  to  find  out  what 
his  pupils  already  know,  and  also  to  enable  him  to 
lead  them  to  find  out  for  themselves  something  that 
they  do  not  know.  It  is  only  when  the  latter  of 
these  objects  is  aimed  at  that  the  mode  of  catechiz- 
ing will  be  noticed  here. 

Teaching  has  no  higher  art  than  that  of  leading 
a  pupil  to  the  discovery  of  a  truth  by  questioning 
him.  A  truth  gained  by  oneself  is  of  much  greater 
value  than  the  same  truth  gained  by  the  help  of 
another.  An  English  author,  in  speaking  of  the 
method  of  Socrates,  says,  ''He  found  those  with 
whom  he  conversed  ignorant  of  some  important 
truth,  and,  instead  of  professing  to  instruct  them,  he 
sought  to  know  their  sentiments  upon  some  other 
truth  with  which  he  knew  they  were  acquainted, 
and  which  he  knew  was  connected  with  the  one  he 


KECITATION.  189 

wanted  to  lead  them  to.  By  familiar  interrogatories, 
he  conducted  them,  step  by  step,  through  the  inter- 
mediate principles,  till  they  were  at  length  surprised 
with  the  perception  of  what  they  had  never  observed 
before.  He  found  them  under  the  influence  of 
some  dangerous  error,  and,  instead  of  professing  to 
correct  them,  he  led  them  on,  by  successive  questions, 
to  discern  an  absurdity  in  which  they  unexpectedly 
found  themselves  landed  by  their  own  principles. 
And  thus  he  avoided  all  that  resistance  to  convic- 
tion which  often  renders  the  most  conclusive  demon- 
stration ineffectual  to  persuade.*'  This  extract  ex- 
presses the  spirit  of  what  is  meant  by  the  cate- 
chetical method  of  imparting  knowledge.  It  simply 
consists  in  putting  questions  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
lead  the  pupil  to  answer  them  for  himself.  Its  great 
advantages  are  that  it  makes  teaching  exacty  thorough^ 
methodical^  and  animated.  Of  course,  it  can  be  used 
in  connection  with  lectures,  text-books,  and  dia- 
logues. 

2d.  Testing  Knowledge, — A  skilful  teacher  first  en- 
deavors to  induce  his  pupils  to  tell  what  they 
know,  next  to  find  out  what  they  can,  and  then 
adds  whatever  else  he  may  deem  proper.  In  ex- 
amining pupils  as  to  what  they  know,  questions, 
either  expressed  or  implied,  are  used ;  and  I  have 
called  the  process  of  questioning,  testing  knowledge. 
In  teaching  pupils  to  find  out  what  they  can  by 
catechizing  them,  questions  are  also  used;  and  most 
of  the  principles  to  be  observed  in  questioning  in 
one  case  are  equally  applicable  to  the  other. 

What  can  be  said  in  reference  to  the  questions 
used  in  testing  knowledge  will  regard  the  matter  of 


190  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  questions^  the  form  of  the  questions^  the  mode  of  ques* 
tioning^  and  the  teacher  in  questioning. 

In  matter, — 

The  questions  should  relate  to  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration. — Pupils  will  not  long  continue  to  make 
careful  preparation  of  lessons  they  are  not  required 
to  recite.  The  concentration  of  the  mind  of  a  class 
upon  the  subject  studied  is  much  more  profitable 
than  a  rambling  discussion  of  topics  foreign  to  it. 
It  is  sometimes  very  proper,  however,  for  the  teacher 
to  ask  questions  which  relate  to  the  subject  under 
consideration,  but  which  may  not  be  answered  in 
the  text-book  used.  The  questions  asked  may  relate 
to  the  facts  or  the  principles  of  a  subject,  or  to  the 
language  used  to  express  them. 

Theg  should  be  well  defined. — ITothing  tends  so 
much  to  confuse  an  intelligent  pupil  as  to  be  asked 
questions  which  are  obscure  in  language  or  wanting 
in  point.  The  whole  subject-matter  of  a  lesson 
should  lie  clear  in  the  teacher's  mind,  and  each 
element  or  part  of  it  be  so  separated  from  the  rest 
as  to  admit  of  definite  statement;  for  otherwise  no 
thorough  teaching  can  be  done. 

Their  degree  of  difficulty  should  correspond  to  the  capa- 
city of  the  pupils  for  whom  they  are  intended, — If  the 
questions  put  to  a  class  are  too  hard,  it  will  discou- 
rage its  members,  and  if  too  easy,  it  will  create  habits 
of  idleness  among  them.  The  former  is  the  more 
common  error;  for  teachers  are  apt  to  think  that  what 
seems  easy  to  them  is  easy  for  their  pupils.  Where 
the  members  of  a  class  are  all  equally  studious,  but 
unequal  in  ability,  the  teacher  may  adapt  his  ques- 
tions to  their  several  capacities,  if  he  do  it  with  an 


RECITATION.  191 

eye  single  to  the  interests  of  the  whole.  It  is  well 
that  the  poorest  scholar  in  a  class  be  assigned  ques- 
tions that  he  can  answer ;  and  it  is  well  that  the  best 
scholar  in  a  class  be  sometimes  assigned  a  question 
that  he  cannot  answer. 

They  should  follow  one  another  in  a  logical  order. — 
Disconnected,  fragmentary  knowledge  is  of  compa- 
ratively little  value,  and  little  discipline  can  be  ob- 
tained from  its  acquisition.  Except  to  very  young 
pupils,  knowledge  should  be  imparted  as  bound  to-* 
gether  by  its  associations  and  its  laws,  and  all  mental 
development  should  be  made  systematic.  It  follows 
that  the  questions  by  which  knowledge  is  tested,  or 
by  which  it  is  evolved  from  something  already 
known,  must  follow  one  another  in  a  logical  order, 
— must  be  like  the  links  of  a  chain  fastened  together. 
When  the  object  is  to.review  what  has  been  learned, 
this  order  need  not  be  so  closely  observed ;  indeed, 
it  is  sometimes  an  advantage  in  reviews  to  ask 
questions  miscellaneously  without  regard  to  any 
order. 

They  should  be  exhaustive, — ^Lessons  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  recited  until  the  pupils  have  shown  their 
ability  to  answer  all  the  questions  that  can  be  put 
with  respect  to  the  subject-matter  of  which  they  are 
composed.  These  questions,  therefore,  should  be 
exhaustive.  "With  advanced  classes,  they  should 
exhaust  the  subject;  with  those  less  advanced,  they 
should  exhaust  the  subject  so  far  as  the  pupils  are 
able  to  comprehend  it. 

In  form, — 

The  questions  should  he  concise. — To  answer  well,  a 
pupil  must  see  clearly  the  point  submitted  in  the 

18* 


19^  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

question ;  and  this  he  cannot  do,  if  the  question  is 
long  and  complicated.  Allusion  is  here  made  to 
oral  questions;  when  the  questions  are  written,  they 
may  be  longer,  but  not  less  compact. 

They  should  be  clear^  precise,  and  correct — In  addi- 
tion to  the  task  of  answering  questions,  pupils 
should  not  be  troubled  to  make  out  their  meaning. 
Few  students  have  not  found  it  difficult  to  under- 
stand certain  problems  in  Mathematics  and  certain 
rules  in  Grammar,  owing  to  the  faulty  language 
employed  by  the  authors  of  the  text-books  used; 
and  still  fewer  have  not  been  puzzled  by  the 
thoughtless  expressions  used  by  careless  teachers  in 
putting  questions. 

They  should  be  varied. — I  have  heard  teachers  ask 
questions  who  always  ended  them  with  the  word 
what;  as,  "Geography  is,  what?''  and  sometimes 
other  forms  of  framing  questions  are  so  strictly 
adhered  to  as  to  become  exceedingly  tiresome. 
Questions  at  recitation,  therefore,  should  be  varied 
as  a  matter  of  taste.  But  there  is  a  better  reason. 
The  same  form  of  question  cannot  be  used  in  pre- 
senting facts  and  principles  in  all  their  aspects  and 
relations;  and,  besides,  properly  varied  questions 
are  necessary  to  secure  properly  varied  answers. 

They  should  not  contain  the  answer. — Some  teachers 
so  far  relieve  their  pupils  from  the  trouble  of  think- 
ing, as  to  frame  their  questions  so  that  they  require 
only  a  Yes  or  a  No  for  an  answer ;  and  others  inti- 
mate the  answer  less  plainly,  but  always  give  a  pretty 
broad  hint  as  to  what  it  should  be.  In  examining 
a  class,  such  hints  are  entirely  out  of  place ;  but,  in 
an  effort  to  lead  a  pupil  to  find  out  for  himself  some- 


RECITATION.  193 

thing  that  he  does  not  know,  they  may  be  quite 
proper.  This  distinction  the  student-teacher  will 
do  well  to  bear  in  mind. 

They  should  be  adapted  to  the  subject  under  considera' 
Hon,  and  to  the  circumstances  of  the  class. —  Lessons 
consist  of  letters  to  be  learned;  words  to  be  spelled, 
pronounced,  and  written ;  facts  to  be  remembered ; 
rules  to  be  committed;  sentences  to  be  analyzed; 
inferences  to  be  drawn;  demonstrations  to  be  made; 
exercises  to  be  performed;  &c.  &c. :  all  of  which  re- 
quire forms  of  questions  adapted  to  test  the  know- 
ledge of  them  which  pupils  may  possess,  and  these 
necessarily  are  somewhat  different. 

A  teacher  ought  to  consider  the  forms  of  questions 
best  adapted  to  the  subject  assigned  for  a  lesson 
before  the  recitation  takes  place ;  but  the  varying 
circumstances  of  the  class  may  necessitate  changes 
in  these  forms.  A  general  shows  as  much  skill  in 
providing  for  the  exigencies  of  a  battle  during  its 
progress  as  he  does  in  making  his  arrangements  for 
it  before  it  begins.  "With  young  pupils  especially, 
constant  changes  are  necessary  in  the  forms  of  the 
questions  put  to  them. 

In  mode  of  putting  them, — 

Questions  may  be  ellipticaL — This  mode  of  putting 
questions  cannot  be  used  at  all  in  many  studies,  and 
can  scarcely  ever  be  made  a  very  efficient  way  of 
imparting  knowledge.  When  conducting  a  recita- 
tion according  to  this  mode,  the  teacher  reads  the 
text  and  makes  a  short  pause  wherever  a  word,  a 
clause,  or  a  sentence  occurs  which  he  desires  the 
pupils  to  supply.  It  may  be  rendered  serviceable  in 
instructing  young  children,  if  used  in  connection 


194  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OE   THE   SCHOOL. 

with  other  modes  of  questioning ;  but  by  itself  it 
can  be  seldom  employed  to  advantage.  It  is  most 
applicable  to  lessons  containing  statements  of  facts, 
as  History,  Scripture  Lessons,  &c.  For  example, 
the  teacher  may  read, "  Columbus  discovered — Ame- 
rica— in  the  year  1492.  He  was  born  at  the  city  of 
— Genoa — in — Italy,''  Or,  "ISTow  Peter  sat  without 
in  the — palace:  and  a — damsel — came  unto  him,  say- 
ing, 'Thou  also  wast  with — Jesus — of — Galilee,''' 
Here  the  pupils  supply  the  words  printed  in  italics. 
In  teaching  young  pupils  to  use  words  properly  and 
to  construct,  sentences,  the  elliptical  mode  of  ques- 
tioning may  be  made  to  answer  a  good  purpose.  A 
good  exercise  of  this  kind  consists  in  assigning  to 
pupils  a  piece  of  easy  composition,  omitting  certain 
obviously  implied  words,  and  requiring  the  pupils 
to  supply  them. 

They  may  be  Heuristical, — The  word  Heuristical  is 
derived  from  a  Greek  verb,  eupsaxco,  which  means 
*Ho  find  out  what  is  sought  for.''  I  adopt  it  from 
Rev.  W.  Ross,  an  English  writer  on  education.  By 
the  Heuristical  mode  of  questioning  is  meant  that 
mode  by  which  the  object-matter  of  instruction  is 
presented  in  the  form  of  precomposed  questions, 
such  as  problems  to  be  solved,  sentences  to  be 
parsed,  exercises  to  be  written,  &c.  It  is  very  evi- 
dent that  such  questions  may  consist  of  wholes  to  find 
parts  or  of  parts  to  find  wholes,  and  thus  may  be 
either  analytical  or  synthetical.  The  parsing  of  a 
sentence  is  an  example  of  the  former,  and  the  writ- 
ing of  a  composition  is  an  example  of  the  latter. 

This  mode  of  questioning  can  be  more  advanta- 
geously employed  with  advanced  pupils  than  with 


RECITATION.  195 

beginners,  and  it  is  better  adapted  to  some  studies 
than  to  others.  Its  chief  advantages  are  that  it  re- 
quires great  self-effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  that 
knowledge  acquired  by  it  is  deeply  impressed  upon 
the  mind,  and  that  it  allows  the  student  time  to  put 
forth  his  whole  strength. 

They  may  be  Categorical — I  mean  by  categorical 
questions  such  as  are  direct  and  positive,  or  such  as 
require  direct  and  positive  answers.  This  mode  of 
questioning  is  applicable  to  all  studies,  and  is  that 
which  is  most  commonly  used.  It  may  be  em- 
ployed in  imparting  knowledge,  as  well  as  in  testing 
what  is  already  known.  IsTo  other  mode  is  so  well 
calculated  to  create  life  and  interest  in  the  recita- 
tion, especially  with  young  pupils.  It  leaves  the 
teacher  more  at  liberty  in  the  selection  of  ques- 
tions, in  varying  them,  and  in  distributing  them 
among  the  members  of  a  class.  "Whatever  other 
mode  of  questioning  it  is  best  to  adopt  in  parti- 
cular cases,  this  one  must  be  used  in  connection 
with  it. 

They  may  be  Topical. — ^Instead  of  asking  direct 
questions  or  putting  them  in  the  form  of  problems, 
the  subject-matter  of  instruction  may  be  arranged 
in  the  form  of  topics,  and  these  be  given  to  the 
members  of  a  class  for  discussion.  For  example, 
in  Geography,  in  referring  to  a  particular  country, 
a  teacher  may  say,  "Boundaries,"  *' Surface  of  the 
Country,'*  "Internal  Waters,''  "Soil  and  Climate," 
&c.,  instead  of  asking  in  particular  all  the  individual 
questions  that  may  be  embraced  in  these  topics. 
This  method  devolves  upon  the  student  much  of 
the  work  w^hich    by  the    categorical    method    is 


196  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

performed  by  the  teacher.  He  is  required  to  ana- 
lyze his  topic  into  its  several  parts,  place  those  parts 
in  their  proper  order,  and  make  a  connected  and 
exhaustive  discussion  of  the  whole.  For  advanced 
pupils,  this  mode  of  questioning  has  advantages 
possessed  by  no  other;  and  it  can  be  used  to  some 
extent  with  the  youngest  pupils  in  our  schools.  It 
is  well  adapted  to  reviews.  Care  must  be  taken  in 
distributing  the  topics  to  give  all  the  members  of  a 
class  something  to  do  at  each  recitation.  IsTecessity 
will  generally  be  found,  after  the  discussion  of  each 
topic,  for  asking  particular  questions,  and  these 
may  be  answered  by  different  members  of  the  class, 
thus  securing  the  undivided  attention  of  all ;  or  all 
the  members  of  a  class  may  be  made  responsible 
for  the  mistakes  of  the  one  who  is  speaking,  unless 
they  correct  them. 

The  teacher  in  asking  questions, — 

Should  make  them  proper  as  to  matter,  form,  and  mode. 
— How  this  should  be  in  particular  cases  will  depend 
upon  various  circumstances,  such  as  the  age  of  pupils, 
their  scholarship,  the  kind  of  study  in  which  they 
are  engaged,  whether  the  study  is  being  first  intro- 
duced to  them  or  they  are  reviewing  it,  what  appa- 
ratus is  at  command,  the  length  of  time  which  can 
be  devoted  to  the  recitation,  &c.  The  most  import- 
ant general  principles  relating  to  the  matter  have 
already  been  stated,  and  for  the  rest  the  young 
teacher  must  rely  upon  himself.  I^o  two  teachers 
can  conduct  a  recitation  in  the  same  way;  and  any 
attempt  to  learn  to  teach  by  merely  imitating  an- 
other's work  will  be  a  failure.  Teaching  has  prin- 
ciples which  all  must  observe,  but  the  application 


RECITATION.  197 

of  those  principles  will  be  as  various  as  the  tastes 
and  dispositions  of  men. 

Should  assume  a  graceful  posiurey  and  adopt  a  becom- 
ing manner. — A  standing  posture  before  a  class  is 
more  graceful  than  any  other,  and  gives  the  teacher 
a  better  command  of  his  class.  In  this  posture,  he 
can  secure  better  general  attention,  and,  by  casting 
his  looks  about  the  class,  he  can  better  detect  the 
careless  and  idle.  Men  do  not  often  sit  to  make 
speeches  or  to  command  obedience.  A  sitting  pos- 
ture may  imply  dignity,  it  does  not  denote  anima- 
tion or  energy.  For  these  reasons,  it  is  considered 
best  that  a  teacher  should  generally  stand  while 
hearing  a  recitation.  There  may  be  some  necessary 
modifications  of  this  rule.  A  teacher  who  is  com- 
pelled to  hear  classes  for  several  hours  in  succession 
would  be  likely  to  grow  very  much  fatigued,  and 
should  probably  sit  a  part  of  the  time.  Small 
classes,  too,  can  be  heard  as  well  sitting  as  stand- 
ing. Besides,  whether  the  teacher  sits  or  stands 
does  not  make  so  much  difterence  to  advanced 
pupils  as  to  beginners.  Under  no  circumstances, 
however,  should  a  teacher  sufter  himself  to  recline 
on  his  seat,  to  place  his  feet  on  his  desk,  or  to  assume 
any  other  ungraceful  posture  which  he  would  not 
like  to  see  his  pupils  imitate. 

A  man  possessing  a  cold,  phlegmatic  tempera- 
ment, whose  imperturbable  feelings  are  never  ex- 
cited whether  things  go  well  or  ill,  is  not  fit  to  be  a 
teacher.  Eecitations  conducted  by  such- a  person 
must  always  be  dull,  heavy,  dragging.  There  is  an- 
other extreme.  The  Scotch  teachers  described  by 
Horace  Mann  seemed  to  be  during  the  recitation 


198  THE    EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

almost  incapable  of  hearing  or  seeing  any  thing  else. 
They  walked  rapidly  in  front  of  their  classes,  gesti- 
culated violently,  and  indulged  in  loud  vociferations. 
The  recitation  thus  became  a  scene  of  the  greatest 
excitement,  a  perfect  hurricane  of  questions  and  an- 
swers and  words  of  approbation  and  reproach,  with 
all  the  accompaniments  of  din  and  noise.  Both  of 
these  extremes  should  be  avoided.  More  teachers, 
however,  err  on  the  side  of  indifference  and  dul- 
ness  than  on  that  of  an  excess  of  interest  or  activity. 

In  questioning,  the  voice  should  not  be  too  low 
and  soft,  nor  too  loud  and  shrill.  Its  pitch  and 
force  should  generally  be  as  in  ordinary  conversa- 
tion. If  properly  varied  in  tone,  it  will  do  much  to 
preserve  the  attention  of  the  class  and  add  much 
to  its  life. 

A  teacher  may  use  gestures  in  hearing  a  recita- 
tion ;  but  those  which  are  calm,  dignified,  and  ex- 
pressive seem  most  appropriate. 

A  teacher's  manners  in  the  class-room  should  be 
those  of  the  finished  gentleman  or  lady, — those  of 
a  model  man  or  model  woman. 

3d.  Proving  Knowledge, — A  pupil  can  only  prove 
what  he  knows  by  answering  the  questions  put  to 
him ;  and  the  nature  and  conditions  of  those  answers 
will  constitute  the  present  subject  of  inquiry. 

As  in  testing  knowledge,  what  can  be  said  in 
reference  to  proving  knowledge  will  regard  the 
matter  of  the  answers^  the  form  of  the  answers^  the  mode 
of  answering^  and  the  pupil  in  answering. 

In  matter, — 

Answers  should  contain  nothing  not  implied  in  the 
questions, — A  proper  answer  to  a  question  has  always 


RECITATION.  ^  199 

a  logical  relation  to  it.  Systematic  mental  disci- 
pline and  thorough  knowledge  are  impossible  acqui- 
sitions to  pupils  who  are  habitually  suffered  to 
wander  from  the  point  presented  in  the  question, 
and  to  introduce  extraneous  matter  which  has  little 
or  no  relation  to  it. 

They  should  contain  all  implied  in  the  questions, — 
Partial  answers  may  be  better  than  no  answers  ;  but 
teachers  should  endeavor  to  secure  those  which  are 
full  and  complete.  All  the  great  errors  of  the  world 
are  the  result  of  the  partial  answers  men  have  given 
to  the  problems  of  life.  Children  must  be  trained 
to  delight  in  that  which  is  exhaustive,  systematic, 
perfect ;  and  then,  when  grown  to  manhood,  they 
will  not  be  apt  to  be  deluded  by  the  baseless 
theories  of  superficial  thinkers.  The  teacher  should 
not  forget  that  the  highest  aim  of  education  is  to 
make  men. 

They  should  be  correct  and  explicit, — Without  being 
correct,  what  is  meant  for  an  answer  can  be  no 
answer;  and  without  being  explicit,  it  cannot  be 
understood  as  one.  Correctness  and  clearness  are 
the  two  most  essential  characteristics  of  the  contents 
of  an  answer  as  it  lies  unexpressed  in  the  mind  of 
a  pupil. 

They  should  be  logical, — ^When  the  answer  is  com- 
posed of  several  parts,  those  parts  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  a  logical  order.  The  object  of  a  recitation 
is  not  only  to  ascertain  whether  the  members  of  a 
class  possess  a  knowledge  of  individual  facts  and 
principles,  but  whether  they  understand  their  rela- 
tions. The  latter,  indeed,  is  much  the  surest  test 
of  scholarship. 

19 


200  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

They  should  be  given  under  standingly, — A  pupil  may 
present  an  answer  to  a  question  whicli  is  faultless  as 
tested  by  the  preceding  rules ;  and  yet  it  may  have 
been  merely  committed  to  memory  without  being 
understood.  There  are  many  things  that  the  young 
may  be  told,  the  reasons  for  which  they  are  unable 
to  comprehend;  but  the  teacher  ought  never  to 
forget  that  our  noblest  mental  faculties  are  judgment 
and  reason,  and  that  one  of  the  great  purposes  of 
education  is  to  develop  them.  Besides,  there  are 
wanted  independent  thinkers,  original  investigators; 
and  they  are  not  made  by  simply  storing  away  in 
the  memory  masses  of  indigested  facts  or  multi- 
tudes of  formal  expressions. 

In  form, — 

Answers  should  be  made  to  suit  the  nature  of  the  ques- 
tions to  which  they  are  a  response, — Questions  may 
relate  to  facts,  to  definitions,  to  words,  to  principles, 
to  methods;  and  as  they  cannot  be  always  alike,  so 
like  answers  cannot  be  given  to  them.  Besides,  the 
filling  up  of  an  ellipsis,  the  solving  of  a  problem, 
the  answering  of  a  direct  question,  and  the  discus- 
sion of  a  topic,  must  all  necessarily  dififer.  In  short, 
the  answer  should  be  an  appropriate  response  to 
the  question. 

They  should  be  concise, — Most  men  use  more  words 
than  are  necessary  to  express  their  ideas ;  few  have 
the  power  of  crystallizing  thought.  Pupils  should 
be  trained  to  express  themselves  in  sentences  which 
are  compact  and  close.  I  do  not  object,  as  some 
have  done,  to  stating  the  answer  in  a  single  word, 
when  the  sentence  of  which  it  is  an  abridgment  is 
sufficiently  obvious. 


KECITATION.  201 

They  should  be  correct  and  clear, — This  has  already 
been  said  respecting  the  matter  of  questions;  it  is 
not  less  true  in  respect  to  their  form.  TJngramma- 
tical  or  inelegant,  obscure  or  ambiguous  language, 
when  used  to  express  answers  to  questions,  should 
never  be  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed.  All  recitations 
should  be  considered  as  in  part  linguistic  exercises. 

They  may  he  original^  or  derived  from  authority. — As 
a  general  rule,  pupils  should  be  required  to  give 
their  answers  in  sentences  of  their  own  forming, 
because  it  is  a  good  discipline  in  language,  and  a 
sure  test  of  their  knowledge  of  the  subject.  This 
course  is  not  always  the  best  one,  however,  and  it 
is  very  proper  for  pupils  to  commit  definitions 
and  rules  in  the  words  of  those  who  have  carefully 
considered  the  forms  in  which  they  can  be  best  ex- 
pressed. It  does  not  follow  because  a  thought  is 
expressed  in  the  language  of  another,  that  it  is  not 
understood.  The  young  learn  to  use  language  skil- 
fully by  noticing  how  others  use  it. 

They  should  not  be  monotonous, — It  is  very  unplea- 
sant to  hear  children  drawl  out  their  answers ;  it  is 
almost  as  much  so  to  hear  them  repeat  them  in  the 
same  form  of  words.  Both  faults  are  readily  cor- 
rected, however,  if  the  teacher  attend  to  the  rules 
for  putting  questions. 

In  mode, — 

Answers  may  be  given  consecutively,— HhiQ  mode  re- 
quires the  answers  to  be  given  by  turns.  The  first 
question  is  usually  put  to  the  pupil  who  stands  at 
the  head  of  the  class ;  the  second,  to  the  next ;  and 
so  on  to  the  foot,  when  the  same  order  is  observed 
with  the  remaining  questions.     K  an  incorrect  an- 


202  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

swer  is  given  by  any  one,  the  question  is  passed  to 
the  next,  and  if  he  answers  it,  he  takes  the  place  of 
him  who  failed  to  answer.  If  the  question  is  missed 
by  several,  he  who  answers  it  correctly  takes  the 
place  of  the  one  who  first  committed  the  error,  the 
others  retaining  the  same  relative  position. 

Common  as  is  the  use  of  the  consecutive  mode 
of  answering  questions,  it  is  open  to  several  objec- 
tions. 

When  it  is  known  that  a  certain  order  is  to  be 
followed  in  assigning  the  questions,  some  pupils 
cannot  resist  the  temptation  of  preparing  only  those 
parts  of  the  lesson  which  they  expect  to  be  called 
upon  to  recite.  I  have  known  pupils  to  count  the 
number  of  members  in  a  class  and  the  number  of 
questions  in  a  lesson,  and  shrewdly  calculate  in  the 
revolution  of  the  wheel  what  questions  would  come 
to  them,  and  prepare  accordingly.  When  this  can 
be  done,  it  need  scarcely  be  added,  that  the  purpose 
of  a  recitation  is  in  great  measure  defeated. 

The  consecutive  mode  of  answering  does  not  tend 
to  secure  that  close  attention  to  all  the  questions  ad- 
dressed them,  on  the  part  of  pupils,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  their  rapid  progress  in  study.  When 
a  pupil  has  answered  a  question,  he  is  quite  sure  he 
will  not  be  called  upon  to  answer  another  until  all 
have  answered ;  and  he  may  spend  the  interval  in 
idly  looking  about,  in  play,  or  in  mischief.  A 
Superintendent  once  corrected  this  faulty  mode  of 
conducting  a  recitation,  in  the  following  manner.  A 
large  class  was  reciting  a  lesson  in  reading.  The 
lesson  was  divided  into  paragraphs,  and  each  pupil 
read  a  paragraph,  commencing  at  the  head  of  the 


KECITATION.  203 

class;  but  having  read  lie  made  the  necessary  calcu- 
lation to  enable  him  to  ascertain  the  number  of  the 
paragraph  he  would  be  required  to  read  next,  and 
then,  placing  his  finger  upon  it  or  marking  it,  he 
occupied  the  time  others  were  reading  in  perfect  in- 
difference as  to  what  was  passing  in  the  class.  After 
the  recitation  had  proceeded  for  some  time  in  this 
way,  the  Superintendent  was  permitted  to  take  charge 
of  the  class.  He  immediately  gave  each  member  of 
the  class  a  number,  not  knowing  the  names  of  the 
pupils,  urged  attention  to  the  lesson,  stating  that  he 
would  consider  himself  at  liberty  to  call  upon  any  one, 
either  to  continue  the  reading,  or  to  answer  a  question 
concerning  the  matter  or  the  language  of  the  lesson. 
When  all  were  ready  and  intent  upon  the  work 
before  them,  he  called  upon  them  promiscuously. 
The  change  was  magical.  Life  and  interest  took 
the  place  of  dulness  and  indifference.  After  some 
time,  one  forgot  himself  and  looked  aside,  but  at  once 
his  number  was  called,  and  he  found  he  was  caught. 
This  illustration  exhibits  the  imperfections  of  the 
mode  of  answering  now  under  consideration,  and 
suggests  a  better  one.  This  method,  however,  may 
be  used  advantageously  in  connection  with  other 
methods,  and  it  is  well  adapted  to  small  classes. 
The  system  of  'trapping"  or  place-taking  in  class 
can  be  more  easily  applied  when  the  questions  are  as- 
signed consecutively;  and  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted 
that  with  young  pupils  some  good  may  result 
from  it. 

They  may  he  given  simultaneously, — This  mode  re- 
quires the  answers  to  be  given  by  the  whole  class 
in  concert. 

19* 


204  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Y-  One  of  tlie  principal  objections  to  this  mode  of 
answering,  is  that  the  answers  must  be  given  by  all 
the  pupils  in  a  set  form  of  words  and  in  a  certain 
order,  or  the  concert  will  be  spoiled;  and  these 
mechanical  conditions  are  wholly  at  variance  with 
independent  thinking. 

A  second  objection  to  it  is  that  it  lessens  indivi- 
dual responsibility  among  pupils  at  the  recitation. 
The  class  as  a  whole  is  responsible ;  but  if  two  or 
three  lead  the  concert,  the  rest  can  easily  join  it  in 
such  a  way  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  distinguish  him 
who  leads  from  him  who  follows.  Teachers,  even, 
are  sometimes  deceived  in  regard  to  the  amount  of 
knowledge  possessed  by  classes  that  recite  in  con- 
cert; but  the  deception  can  be  readily  detected  by 
a  few  well-directed  questions  put  to  individuals.  It 
may  be  stated  as  a  general  principle  that  no  mode 
of  answering  will  be  successful  that  does  not  com- 
pel each  member  of  a  class  to  think  and  speak  for 
himself. 

The  simultaneous  mode  of  answering,  however,  has 
its  uses.  A  few  questions  answered  in  concert,  now 
and  then,  will  enliven  a  class  and  tend  to  increase 
the  interest  in  the  recitation.  Any  lessons  or  parts 
of  lessons  that  are  intended  to  be  committed  to 
memory  in  a  certain  order,  as  the  Tables,  Declen- 
sions, and  Conjugations,  may  be  recited  in  this  mode 
with  considerable  advantage.  The  same  is  true  to 
even  a  greater  extent  with  the  training  exercises  in 
Reading  and  Vocal  Music.  Still,  even  in  these  cases 
the  teacher  must  frequently  address  questions  to 
individuals  in  order  to  ascertain  that  all  are  making 


EECITATION.  ZJO 

sure  progress,  and  to  guard  them  from  the  dauger 
of  forgetting  that  each  is  responsible  for  himself. 

T/iey  may  be  given  promiscuously. — "When  conduct- 
ing a  recitation  according  to  this  mode,  the  teacher 
calls  upon  the  different  members  of  his  class  to 
answer,  without  regard  to  any  particular  order.  If 
there  is  reason  for  it,  he  may  assign  more  questions, 
or  harder  ones,  to  some  pupils  than  to  others ;  but 
he  must  treat  all  with  the  most  strict  impartiality. 

For  the  ordinary  purposes  of  a  recitation,  and  for 
general  reliability,  this  mode  of  answering  is  un- 
doubtedly better  than  those  which  have  been  pre- 
viously named.  It  concentrates  the  attention  of 
the  class  upon  the  work  of  the  recitation,  it  compels 
pupils  to  study  all  parts  of  the  lessons  with  the  same 
care,  it  makes  each  one  responsible  for  his  own 
work,  and  enables  the  teacher  to  make  the  most 
advantageous  distribution  of  his  questions.  If  it 
be  desirable  to  have  a  head  and  a  foot  to  a  class,  or 
places  of  honor,  the  records  of  the  recitations  which 
should  be  kept  by  the  teacher  will  enable  him  to 
assign  places  to  its  members  according  to  their  rela- 
tive scholarship. 

There  are  several  modifications  of  the  promis- 
cuous mode  of  answering  questions  which  must  be 
noticed. 

The  first  modification  is  that  in  which  the  ques- 
tion is  stated  without  designating  any  one  to  an- 
swer it,  but  with  the  expectation  that  all  who  think 
they  can  do  so  will  raise  their  hands,  and  then  the 
answerer  is  selected  from  among  them.  If  pupils 
always  would  or  could  report  their  knowledge  cor- 
rectly, this  mode  might  enable  a  teacher  to  see  at  a 


206  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

glance  who  could  answer  and  who  could  not ;  but, 
in  most  classes,  teachers  will  find,  upon  experiment, 
some  modest  and  conscientious  pupils  who  think 
they  can  answer  but  who  are  afraid  they  cannot, 
and  do  not  therefore  raise  their  hands ;  and  others 
who  raise  their  hands  without  having  the  most  sub- 
stantial data  upon  which  to  base  the  conclusion  that 
they  are  able  to  give  the  correct  answer.  Besides, 
it  is  not  best  for  a  teacher  to  seem  to  take  it  for 
granted  that  any  member  of  a  class  is  not  prepared 
to  recite. 

The  second  modification  is  one  in  which  a  ques- 
tion is  put  and  the  answerer  selected  from  among 
all  the  members  of  the  class.  This  mode  gives  the 
teacher  more  freedom  in  the  distribution  of  his 
questions,  and  obviates  the  objections  just  named 
as  applicable  to  the  preceding  mode.  If  the  first 
one  called  upon  fail  to  answer,  it  may  be  well  to 
permit  all  others  who  feel  prepared  to  raise  their 
hands. 

There  is  a  third  modification  of  the  promiscuous 
mode  of  answering  questions.  In  this,  the  teacher 
calls  upon  a  member  of  the  class,  who  responds  by 
rising  or  taking  a  designated  seat,  when  the  teacher 
proceeds  to  put  a  series  of  questions  to  him,  or  to 
assign  him  a  topic  for  discussion,  and,  being  satis- 
fied, calls  upon  another.  This  made  is  thorough 
and  searching.  It  is  well  adapted  to  reviews  and 
examinations.  The  objection  to  it  is  that  it  does 
not  sufficiently  distribute  the  work  of  the  recitation 
to  secure  the  highest  interest  in  the  class. 

Following  a  fourth  modification,  the  teacher  puts 
no  direct  questions,  at  least  in  the  beginning,  but 


KECITATION.  207 

calls  upon  some  one  to  state  the  subject  of  the  lesson.^ 
another  to  commence  the  recitation,  a  third  to  con 
tinue  it,  a  fourth  to  follow,  and  so  on  until  the  matter 
under  consideration  has  been  exhausted,  each  being 
stopped,  criticized,  and  corrected  at  any  point  where 
the  teacher  deems  it  expedient.  Such  a  class  is 
almost  a  self-working  machine,  the  teacher  merely 
mentioning  the  names  of  those  who  recite  and  those 
who  volunteer  comments  or  criticisms.  It  is  very 
evident,  however,  that  this  mode  strictly  applied 
would  prevent  a  class  from  receiving  any  help  from 
the  teacher  during  the  recitation,  and  that  it  is  only 
adapted  to  advanced  classes  under  peculiar  circum- 
stances.  It  answers  a  very  good  purpose  in  reviews. 

The)j  may  be  given  in  loriiing, — In  all  that  has  been 
said  in  regard  to  modes  of  answering  questions, 
pupils  have  been  supposed  to  give  their  answers 
orally.  It  is  proper  to  add  that  the  answers  may  be 
written,  and  given  consecutively,  simultaneously,  or 
promiscuously,  with  only  those  changes  which  are 
necessitated  by  the  difference  between  writing  and 
speaking.  For  example,  in  a  Mathematical  recita- 
tion, each  pupil  in  turn  may  be  assigned  a  problem 
to  solve,  all  may  be  required  to  solve  the  same  pro- 
blem at  the  same  time  and  to  announce  the  result 
together,  or  any  one  may  be  called  upon  to  solve  a 
particular  problem. 

"When  the  principal  object  is  to  examine  a  class, 
the  whole  subject-matter  intended  for  the  examina- 
tion may  be  submitted  to  each  member,  and  all  be 
assigned  the  same  task  with  respect  to  it.  The  work 
when  done  should  be  handed  to  the  teacher.  To 
make  the  result  a  fair  test  of  knowledge  or  skill, 


208  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

each  member  of  a  class  must  perform  his  own  work. 
When  thus  done,  there  is  no  other  method  by  which 
a  class  can  be  examined  with  so  much  accuracy.  It 
gives  time  for  thinking,  and  time  to  find  fit  words 
by  which  to  express  the  thought. 

In  ordinary  recitations,  the  Written  mode  of  an- 
swering questions  is  open  to  some  objections.  It 
requires  too  much  time  to  write  the  answers,  the 
teacher  cannot  so  readily  explain  difiicult  points  or 
make  suggestions,  the  pupil  loses  the  opportunity 
of  practice  in  speaking,  though  he  gains  in  the 
opportunity  of  practice  in  writing,  and  the  recita- 
tion itself  is  -necessarily  devoid  of  that  interest  and 
flow  of  feeling  which  go  so  far  to  secure  its  objects. 
These  objections  only  apply  to  this  mode  when  used 
by  itself;  for  in  connection  with  the  oral  methods 
of  answering,  it  is  highly  valuable.  There  is  no 
lesson  that  does  not  contain  questions  the  answers 
to  which  cannot  be  written  on  blackboards,  and 
many  lessons  can  be  most  conveniently  recited  in 
this  way.  Blackboards  can  be  used  in  spelling,  in 
solving  problems,  in  writing  definitions,  and  in  giving 
analyses  of  subjects,  forms  of  paradigms,  and  lists 
of  examples.  Teachers  can  often  economize  the 
time  of  a  recitation  by  having  some  members  of  a 
class  use  the  blackboard  in  answering  questions, 
while  others  recite  orally. 

The  pupil,  in  answering  questions,— 
Should  make  them  proper  as  to  matter,  form,  and 
mode, — What  is  proper  in  the  matter,  form,  and 
mode  of  answers  has  already  been  indicated,  so 
far  as  it  could  be  done  by  the  statement  of  the 
general  principles  relating  to  the  subject.    Detailed 


RECITATION.  209 

directions  are  left  to  the  teacher,  as  they  must  be 
varied  by  the  varying  circumstances  in  which  reci- 
tations take  place. 

Should  he  attentive^  respectful^  and  adopt  a  becoming 
position, — 1^0  pupil  can  recite  well  who  does  not 
have  his  mind  occupied  with  the  subject.  He  is  in 
danger  of  misapprehending  the  questions  asked 
him,  or  of  saying  things  in  answer  which  have  no 
bearing  upon  them.  It  needs  only  to  be  stated,  to 
secure  universal  assent,  that  a  pupil  while  reciting 
should  be  respectful  towards  his  teacher  and  class- 
mates. A  pupil  in  answering  questions  should 
generally  stand.  To  sit  may  be  proper  in  some 
cases;  but  no  ungraceful  posture  should  be  tole- 
rated. 

4th.  Correcting  Errors, — Answers  to  questions  may 
be  either  wholly  wrong  or  partly  wrong.  In  both 
cases  they  should  be  corrected.  A  pupil  who  com- 
mits an  error  in  reciting  may  have  it  corrected  by 
his  classmates  or  by  the  teacher.  This  necessitates 
a  twofold  division  of  the  subject:  first,  the  correction 
of  errors  by  the  pupils;  second,  the  correction  of  errors 
by  the  teacher. 

If  a  pupil  who  is  reciting  makes  a  mistake,  several 
advantages  arise  from  allowing  his  classmates  to 
correct  him  if  able  to  do  so.  It  enlists  the  attention 
of  the  class  more  closely.  It  creates  more  interest 
in  the  recitation.  It  gives  opportunity  for  industry 
to  exhibit  its  fruits,  and  for  ambition  to  distinguish 
itself.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  distribute  more 
equally  the  matter  of  the  recitation,  and  to  test 
more  accurately  the  power  of  the  class.  The  teacher 
may  hold  all  the  members  of  a  class  responsible  for 


210  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

the  mistakes  of  any  one  of  them ;  that  is,  he  may 
count  the  question  missed  by  one  as  missed  by  all 
unless  they  volunteer  a  correction. 

The  danger  of  class-criticism  is  that  it  may  create 
ill  feeling  among  the  members  of  a  class;  but 
against  this  a  judicious  teacher  can  always  guard 
by  promptly  checking  any  approach  to  it. 

If  his  classmates  cannot  correct  a  wrong  answer 
given  by  a  pupil,  the  teacher  must  do  so;  and, 
besides,  it  is  his  duty  to  inquire  into  the  causes 
which  induced  the  mistake.  It  might  be  remarked, 
however,  that  it  is  sometimes  useful  to  refer  ques- 
tions, or  to  postpone  an  answer  to  them,  until  the 
pupils  have  made  some  additional  investigations. 
Such  is  particularly  the  case  when  the  inability  to 
answer  arises  from  either  a  want  of  time  or  a  want 
of  inclination  to  study. 

When  the  teacher  corrects  an  answer,  he  should 
give  no  more  of  it  than  is  sufficient  to  suggest  the 
rest  to  the  pupil's  mind.  His  language  should  be 
plain,  and  his  manner  pleasant.  A  wrong  answer 
may  result  from  an  improper  question,  or  an  im- 
proper manner  of  putting  it;  and,  if  so,  the  teacher 
must  correct  his  own  fault  before  he  can  expect  to 
correct  the  fault  of  his  pupil.  It  may  result  from 
timidity;  then  the  teacher  must  endeavor  to 
strengthen  the  pupil's  confidence  in  himself.  It 
may  result  from  an  unwillingness  to  answer ;  and  in 
that  case,  such  a  course  should  be  pursued  as  to 
cause  the  pupil  to  change  his  mind.  It  may  result 
from  a  want  of  disposition  to  study;  the  proper 
remedy  then  is  to  apply  means  to  increase  that  dis- 
position.    It  may  result  from  inability ;  and,  if  so, 


RECITATION.  211 

the  teacher  must  render  judicious  help.  To  know 
exactly  when  and  how  to  correct  the  answers  of 
pupils  at  a  recitation,  requires  much  judgment. 

4.  The  Pre-paration  for  the  Recitation. — With 
a  knowledge  of  the  Objects  of  the  Recitation,  the 
Requisites  of  the  Recitation,  and  the  Methods  of 
conducting  a  Recitation,  we  are  ready  to  make  in- 
quiry concerning  the  preparation  necessary  to  effect 
these  objects,  supply  these  requisites,  and  conform 
to  these  methods.     We  shall  want  to  know — 

1st.  The  Preparation  the  Pupil  needs  for  the  Recitation. 
2d.  The  Preparation  the  Teacher  needs  for  the  Recitation. 

1st.  The  Preparation  the  Pupil  needs  for  the  Reci- 
tation,—  The  pupil  must  study  the  matter  of  the  lesson, — 
This  is  the  main  purpose  for  which  lessons  are  as- 
signed. It  is  necessary  in  order  to  give  correct 
answers  to  questions  concerning  it.  This  matter 
should  not  always  be  confined  to  that  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  text-book,  but  may  extend  to  that 
which  is  to  be  found  in  other  books,  or  that  which 
may  be  obtained  by  original  investigations.  The 
relations  of  one  lesson  to  those  which  have  preceded 
it  can  never  be  safely  overlooked  in  preparing  for  a 
recitation.  Something  may  be  gained  by  the  pupil 
from  suggestions  by  the  teacher  in  reference  to  the 
manner  of  preparing  a  lesson.  I  have  always  suc- 
ceeded best  by  first  securing  a  general  view  of  a 
subject  or  a  general  understanding  of  it,  and  then 
a  mastery  of  its  details.  The  subject-matter  usually 
assigned  as  lessons  for  pupils  consists  of  facts, 
axioms,  definitions,  or  reasonings.  Facts  can  be 
learned  best  by  classifying  them  according  to  the 

20 


212  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

laws  of  association.  Axioms  and  definitions  im- 
press themselves  more  deeply  upon  the  memory 
when  applied  or  illustrated.  Processes  of  reason- 
ing must  be  understood  to  be  remembered  or  to 
serve  any  useful  purpose.  The  statement  of  facts 
or  the  evolution  of  principles  should  be  given  in  the 
pupil's  own  language. 

It  may  be  proper  to  say  a  word  here  in  regard  to 
the  propriety  of  the  teacher's  giving  assistance  to  a 
pupil  in  preparing  his  lessons.  More  mistakes  have 
been  made  by  teachers  in  giving  too  much  help  at 
such  times  than  too  little.  It  economizes  time  to 
render  such  help  at  the  recitation  ;  for  in  all  proba- 
bility the  same  difficulty  will  occur  to  more  than  one 
member  of  the  class.  In  this  way,  too,  the  class  may 
be  made  to  teach  itself, — a  thing  always  desirable. 
But  pupils  sometimes  need  assistance  in  preparing 
a  lesson.  A  point  in  the  solution  of  a  problem,  a 
word  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence,  may  effect- 
ually block  the  pupil's  pathway  in  the  preparation 
of  his  lesson ;  and  the  teacher  may  remove  the  dif- 
ficulty, or,  what  is  better,  aid  the  pupil  in  removing 
it.  For  this  purpose  a  time  should  be  provided  in 
the  school-programme.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  whatever  a  pupil  can  do  for  himself 
in  a  reasonable  amount  of  time,  he  should  be 
allowed  to  do. 

The  pupil  must  prepare  to  place  his  answers  in  proper 
form. — Elsewhere  the  forms  of  answers  have  been 
considered,  and  it  is  very  evident,  from  what  is  there 
said,  that  these  forms  require  study.  True,  the 
questions  are  often  unknown ;  but  then  they  can 
be  pretty  easily  imagined.  When  topics  are  assigned 


RECITATION.  213 

for  discussion,  problems  for  solution,  or  definite 
exercises  for  preparation,  the  forms  of  the  answers 
can  be  fully  studied.  The  pupil  cannot  be  too  care- 
ful in  the  work  of  acquiring  the  use  of  good  lan- 
guage. 

2^6  pupil  must  prepare  to  assume  a  becoming  posi- 
tioUy  manner,  and  deportment  during  the  recitation, — 
"What  is  proper  in  these  respects  was  mentioned  in 
another  place.  I  speak  of  the  matter  in  this  con- 
nection only  in  order  to  say  that  these  requirements 
cannot  be  generally  complied  with  unless  some  pre- 
paration is  made.  Gracefulness  of  person,  polite- 
ness of  manners,  and  propriety  of  deportment,  may 
be  natural  to  some;  but  many,  if  not  all,  can  acquire 
them.  Pupils  should  avoid  rudeness,  roughness, 
and  awkwardness  everywhere;  but  these  faults 
appear  to  most  disadvantage  in  the  recitation,  and 
there,  at  least,  all  should  endeavor  to  regulate  their 
appearance  and  their  conduct  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  good  taste. 

The  pupil  must  go  to  the  class-room  in  a  teachable 
spirit, — The  value  of  a  recitation  depends  greatly 
upon  the  spirit  with  which  pupils  receive  instruction. 
If  they  attend  the  recitations  reluctantly,  listen  to 
the  teacher  impatiently,  be  restless  while  classmates 
recite,  and  reckless  as  regards  the  manner  in  which 
they  recite  themselves,  and,  when  the  recitation- 
hour  has  expired,  hurry  away  to  some  scene  of  plea- 
sure or  place  of  mischief,  progress  in  learning  will 
be  an  impossibility.  Pupils*  likes  and  dislikes,  in 
the  same  way  as  the  likes  and  dislikes  of  other 
people,  are  very  much  under  their  own  control.  If 
they  do  not  like  study  in  general,  or  a  study  in  par- 


214  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

ticular,  they  can  make  tliemselves  like  it.  The 
spirit  was  intended  to  control  the  flesh.  What  is 
often  attributed  to  a  want  of  ability  is  a  want  of 
will.  The  receptivities  of  our  mental  nature,  no  less 
than  its  activities,  need  culture.  Preparation  to  re- 
ceive a  lesson  must  be  made,  as  well  as  preparation 
to  recite  one. 

2d.  The  Preparation  the  Teacher  needs  for  the  Beci- 
iaiion. — The  teacher  must  assign  proper  lessons. — It 
is  evident  that  a  lesson  ought  not  to  be  too  difficult 
nor  too  easy  for  the  pupils  who  are  expected  to  pre- 
pare it.  To  assign  it  properly,  the  teacher  must  con- 
sider the  capabilities  of  the  class,  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter  of  the  lesson,  and  the  time  the  pupils 
will  have  for  preparation.  A  teacher  can  know  the 
capabilities  of  his  class  only  by  close  observation  at 
the  recitation,  he  can  acquaint  himself  with  the 
nature  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson  only  by  an 
examination  of  it  prior  to  its  assignment  as  a  lesson, 
and  the  time  at  the  disposal  of  a  class  for  the  pre- 
paration of  a  lesson  can  only  be  ascertained  when 
estimated  in  connection  with  the  time  which  its 
members  must  devote  to  other  objects. 

The  teacher  must  make  himself  familiar  with  the 
subject-matter  of  the  lesson, — Merely  to  ask  questions 
from  a  book,  or  to  depend  upon  the  help  of  a  book 
to  know  whether  an  answer  is  correct  or  otherwise, 
is  not  teaching.  No  one  can  teach  another  what  he 
does  not  know  himself.  The  more  familiar  a  teacher 
is  with  a  subject,  other  things  being  equal,  the  better 
he  can  communicate  a  knowledge  of  it  to  others. 
This  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  what 
he  attempts  to  teach  should  extend  as  far  as  possible 


BECITATION.  -  215 

beyond  what  is  contained  in  the  text-book  used. 
Text-books  generally  present  but  a  mere  outline  of 
the  several  branches  of  instruction.  The  teacher 
must  prepare  himself  to  fill  up  this  outline, — to  ex- 
plain, illustrate,  and  add  to  the  lesson.  Mental 
growth  depends  more  upon  what  is  suggested  by 
the  text-book  than  what  is  learned  from  it. 

The  teacher  must  arrange  the  subject-matter  of  the 
lesson  into  jprojper  questions,  both  as  regards  matter  and 
form, — ^From  what  was  previously  said,  it  can  readily 
be  seen  that  some  preparation  is  necessary  in  order 
to  frame  such  questions.  A  teacher  ought  not  to 
trust  to  the  inspiration  of  the  moment  or  to  his 
general  knowledge  of  the  subject  he  is  engaged  in 
teaching  for  the  selection  of  matter  for  his  ques- 
tions or  for  their  expression  in  verbal  forms.  Clumsy, 
unmeaning  questions  confuse  the  pupils  and  vitiate 
their  taste.  The  shrewd  lawyer  prepares  himself 
with  reference  to  the  points  of  law  and  fact  involved 
in  his  client's  cause;  the  wise  clergyman  makes 
his  sermons  bear  specially  upon  the  weaknesses,  the 
follies,  and  the  sins  of  his  congregation ;  the  skilful 
physician  would  be  ashamed  not  to  study  the  pecu- 
liar symptoms  of  a  disease  submitted  to  him  for 
treatment :  so  the  teacher  who  is  awake  to  the  in- 
terests of  his  class  makes  like  preparation  as  regards 
the  questions  he  proposes  to  ask,  and  the  manner  of 
asking  them. 

The  teacher  must  choose  a  mode  of  reciting,  and  select 
the  necessary  apparatus  for  conducting  the  recitation, — 
The  mode  of  reciting  will  depend  upon  the  nature 
cf  the  lesson;  and  no  teacher  can  afford  to  allow 
it  to  be  determined  by  chance.     Apparatus  is  fre- 

20* 


216  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

quently  needed  for  conducting  recitations, — maps, 
charts,  models,  cards,  philosophical  and  chemical 
apparatus,  &c.  All  this  ought  to  be  procured  and 
set  in  order  before  the  recitation  begins. 

The  teacher  must  observe  the  proprieties  of  person 
and  manner  during  the  recitation, — "What  these  pro- 
prieties are  has  been  stated  in  another  place :  here 
it  is  only  proper  to  say  that  the  teacher  must  make 
preparation  to  observe  them.  Nowhere  else  does 
the  teacher  come  in  such  close  contact  with  his 
pupils  as  at  the  recitation,  and  nowhere  else  can 
his  example  in  dress,  in  position,  in  manners,  in 
habits,  have  so  great  an  influence.  Let  the  teacher 
prepare  to  meet  his  class  like  a  gentleman,  and  the 
silent  influence  of  his  cultured  manners  will  teach 
lessons  as  valuable  as  those  gained  from  books. 

III.  Exercise. — In  every  well-regulated  school, 
the  pupils  are  allowed  to  employ  a  part  of  their 
time  in  taking  exercise.  No  lengthened  argument 
will  be  entered  upon  here  to  show  the  value  of  such 
a  provision ;  but  it  may  be  stated — 

That  exercise  is  necessary  to  health, — The  results  of 
common  observation,  as  well  as  the  investigations 
of  physiologists,  attest  the  truth  of  this  proposition. 
Confine  a  child,  forbid  him  exercise,  and  sickness 
is  almost  inevitable.  Without  exercise,  all  the 
organic  functions  of  the  body  are  impeded  in  their 
action.  The  digestive  organs  are  weakened,  the 
circulation  goes  on  slowly,  the  nervous  system  be- 
comes deranged,  the  vital  forces  are  diminished; 
and,  as  a  consequence,  disease  may  fasten  upon  the 
body  and  cause  it  to  sink  under  its  effects.    It  needs 


EXERCISE.  217 

not  that  instances  be  given  when  all  have  witnessed 
them. 

That  exercise  is  necessary  to  strength, — We  need 
physical  strength  to  enable  us  to  work  efficiently. 
Work  must  be  done;  forests  must  be  cut  down, 
roads  must  be  opened,  mountains  must  be  tun- 
nelled, canals  must  be  dug,  bridges  must  be  erected, 
cities  mast  be  built,  shelter,  food,  and  clothing 
must  be  obtained,  our  country  must  be  defended ; 
and  all  this  requires  strong  arms.  Vigorous,  healthy 
men  are  necessary  to  make  a  great  nation  ;  and  such 
cannot  be  had  if  the  young  enjoy  no  opportunity 
of  exercising.  "Only  a  whole  man  is  capacitated 
to  perform  in  the  best  manner  the  tasks  of  life.'' 
Exercise  toughens  the  muscles,  hurries  the  blood 
with  its  freight  of  rich  nutriment  through  the 
arteries,  enlarges  the  lungs,  and  invigorates  the 
whole  system.  What  length  of  hair  was  to  Samson, 
exercise  is  to  common  men. 

That  exercise  is  necessary  to  study, — Good  health  and 
strength  of  body  are  necessary  to  study;  and  there- 
fore exercise,  which  is  essential  to  both,  must  be  so. 
A  sound  mind  can  be  found  only  in  connection  with 
a  sound  body.  Some  of  the  plainest  facts  of  Phy- 
siological Science  are  those  which  exhibit  the  sym- 
pathy between  mind  and  body.  A  weak  or  diseased 
body  affiscts  the  mind,  and  a  weak  or  diseased  mind 
affects  the  body.  It  follows  that  the  exercise  of  the 
body  tends  to  promote  success  in  study.  The  same 
principle  might  be  proven  by  other  facts.  Experience 
has  everywhere  shown  that  students  who  confine 
themselves  closely  to  their  rooms,  who  take  no  ex- 
ercise, make  in  a  series  of  years  less  progress  than 


218  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

otliers  who,  at  proper  times,  and  in  a  proper  manner, 
relieve  their  minds  weary  from  study,  and  refresh 
their  spirits  by  exercising  the  body.  The  body  does 
not  need  rest  more  than  the  mind,  and  physical 
exercise  renews  mental  strength. 

Exercise  as  taken  at  school  consists  of  two  kinds ; 
and  the  discussion  concerning  it  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts  : — 

1.  Unregulated  Exercise. 

2.  Eegulated  Exercise. 

1.  Unregulatei)  Exercise. — ^By  Unregulated  Ex- 
ercise is  meant  those  games  or  plays  which  children 
contrive  for  themselves,  or  in  which  they  engage  of 
their  own  accord.  Plato  said,  "  The  gods  are  the 
friends  of  amusement;"  and  any  one  who  studies 
the  nature  of  children  will  find  that  play  is  almost 
as  necessary  to  them  as  breathing.  The  young  of 
all  animals  are  fond  of  play.  It  is  a  common  in- 
stinct. Through  the  air,  upon  the  earth,  and  in  the 
waters,  they  have  their  sports  and  gambols,  and 
make  of  the  beginning  of  life  its  mirth-time. 
Children,  at  home  and  at  school,  must  be  allowed  to 
play.  God  did  not  implant  within  them  the  strong 
sportive  instinct  which  they  manifest,  without  a 
purpose.  Its  gratification  is  necessary  to  health, 
strength,  and  intellectual  and  moral  development. 
It  is  wonderful  how  much  children  learn  from  one 
another  in  play.  An  afternoon  spent  by  a  child 
with  fit  companions  is  worth  more  to  him  than 
days  passed  alone  with  teachers  and  books.  Erom 
his  playfellows  a  child  takes  his  manners,  acquires 


EXERCISE.  219 

his  habits,  adopts  his  opinions,  and  imbibes  his 
principles.  Mothers  who  notice  sudden  changes  m 
the  disposition  and  character  of  their  children  will 
probably  find  this  to  be  the  cause.  Children  must 
play.  It  is  cruel  to  deprive  them  of  it.  But  a 
watchful  care  must  be  exercised  as  to  where,  when, 
and  how  they  play.  What  it  is  desirable  to  say 
further  upon  this  subject  may  be  embraced  under 
the  following  heads : — 

1st.  The  Place  for  Play, 
2d.   The  Times  for  Play. 
3d.   The  Manner  of  Play. 
4th.  The  Teacher  at  Play-time. 

The  Place  for  Play. — Connected  with  every  school, 
there  should  be  places  for  play.  Elsewhere,  school- 
grounds  adapted  to  this  purpose  have  been  described. 
In  good  weather,  all  playing  should  be  done  in  the 
open  air ;  but  a  place  for  play  in  bad  weather  should 
be  provided.  This  provision  can  be  best  met  by 
having  in  our  country  school-houses  a  basement  story 
arranged  for  the  purpose.  The  grounds  connected 
with  Boarding-Schools  should  be  sufficiently  large 
to  admit  of  games  of  ball,  cricket,  sliding,  skating, 
swimming,  rowing,  &c.  Pupils  will  furnish  them- 
selves with  much  of  the  apparatus  needed  in  play  • 
but  it  is  not  at  all  amiss  for  the  school-authorities  to 
assist  them. 

The  Times  for  Play. — In  Primary  Schools,  or  Un- 
graded Schools  which  are  attended  by  pupils  under 
the  age  of  ten  years,  one-third,  if  not  one-half,  of 
the   school-day  should  be   devoted  to  play.     All 


220  THE    EMPLOYMENTS   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

schools  should  devote  a  considerable  time  to  the 
same  purpose.  The  authorities  of  Boarding-Schools 
and  Colleges  sometimes  permit  certain  days  to  be 
set  apart  for  particular  games,  or  games  between 
particular  parties ;  and  it  is  my  opinion  that  they 
do  wisely.  I  am  sure  that  a  well-contested  game 
of  cricket  or  base-ball,  now  and  then,  does  more  to 
make  men  than  the  few  lessons  that  might  be  re- 
cited during  the  playing.  The  exact  hours  or  days 
that  should  be  devoted  to  play  must  be  determined 
by  each  teacher  for  himself.  The  only  principle 
that  need  be  stated  is  that  periods  of  work  should 
alternate  with  periods  of  play. 

The  Manner  of  Play, — The  word  play  is  used  here 
to  denote  all  kinds  of  games,  sports,  and  amuse- 
ments in  which  the  young  engage;  and  they  con- 
stitute a  very  great  number.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
distinguish  the  different  kinds,  or  to  describe  in 
detail  the  manner  of  playing.  Play  is  unrestrained 
activity  the  end  of  which  is  a  delight  in  itself;  it 
therefore  must  be  left  free.  It  is  best  for  school- 
children to  engage  in  plays  that  require  physical 
exertion,  since  after  sitting  in  the  school-room  the 
body  needs  exercise.  Plays  at  school  should  always 
be  so  conducted  as  not  to  annoy  those  who  live 
neighbors  to  the  school,  either  by  unpleasant  noises 
or  trespasses  upon  property.  Good  taste  can  be 
shown  in  play ;  and  this  will  banish  from  the  school 
play-ground  all  sports  and  games  that  are  rude, 
rough,  or  unchaste.  All  plays  that  endanger  the 
morals  of  the  young,  or  that  are  apt  to  lead  them 
into  bad  habits,  should  be  prohibited.  In  this  cate- 
gory are  found  games  of  chance,  such  as  card-play- 


EXERCISE.  221 

ing,  matching  or  pitching  pennies,  and  even  marbles, 
when  each  party  engaged  in  the  game  keeps  what 
he  wins.  I  am  well  satisfied  that  a  play-ground 
properly  managed  may  be  made  an  excellent  school 
for  character.  What  is  wanting  in  the  discipline 
of  the  school-room  may  be  supplied  here.  It  is 
society  in  miniature ;  and  plays  can  be  so  directed 
as  to  make  pupils  energetic,  manly,  polite,  generous, 
honest,  and  truthful.  Indeed,  the  weeds  that  are 
so  apt  to  spring  up  in  the  untilled  garden  of  the 
childish  heart  are  here  best  rooted  up,  and  their 
place  supplied  with  good  seed ;  but  it  must  also  be 
remembered  that  evil  companions,  enemies,  are  ever 
present  to  sow  tares  among  the  wheat. 

The  Teacher  at  Play4ime, — I  think  it  is  dio  less  a 
teacher's  duty  to  be  with  his  pupils  while  at  play 
than  it  is  to  meet  them  at  the  recitation.  I  know 
that  some  schools  are  so  organized  that  the  discharge 
of  this  duty  is  impossible ;  but  in  that  case  the  au- 
thorities who  control  the  organization  are  respon- 
sible for  its  non-performance.  Whenever  a  teacher 
cannot  be  with  his  pupils  at  play,  he  should  still 
exercise  as  much  supervision  over  them  while  thus 
engaged  as  may  be  practicable. 

On  the  play-ground  the  teacher  should  so  act  as 
to  make  his  presence  welcome.  He  should  not  be 
a  restraint  upon  the  play.  The  fun  should  be  greater 
because  he  is  by.  The  merry  frolickers  should  feel 
that  they  enjoy  his  hearty  sympathy.  His  presence 
may  elevate  and  chasten ;  but  stiff  dignity  and 
crusty  criticism  are  wholly  out  of  place. 

The  teacher  may  take  part  in  the  plays  of  his 
pupils.     In  no  other  way  can  he  study  their  charac- 


222  THE   EMPLOYMENTS    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

ter  so  advantageously,  and  I  am  led  to  think  that  in 
no  other  way  can  he  do  them  so  much  good.  There 
is  scarcely  a  better  test  of  a  good  teacher  than  that 
his  pupils  like  to  play  with  him.  When  thus  taking 
part,  he  will  naturally  make  suggestions  as  to  the 
direction  of  the  play,  but  should  never  assume  pri- 
vileges not  accorded  to  his  position  as  a  participant 
in  it. 

A  teacher  will  find  it  bad  policy  to  reprove  or 
punish  on  the  play-ground.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
stop  a  play,  or  to  deny  a  pupil  the  privilege  of  par- 
ticipating in  one ;  but  this  will  occur  very  seldom. 
It  is  best  for  the  teacher  on  the  play-ground  to 
appear  in  an  unofficial  capacity.  He  may  direct 
and  advise,  but  should  seldom  command.  He  may 
teach  there  by  his  presence,  by  his  example ;  but 
precepts  are  generally  better  suited  to  the  school- 
room. His  principal  object  ought  to  be  to  observe, 
to  study  the  character  of  his  pupils,  for  the  purpose 
of  turning  the  information  obtained  to  good  account 
elsewhere.  If  he  notice  any  thing  wrong  or  im- 
proper, the  offenders  should  be  treated  with  pri- 
vately. 

2.  Regulated  Exercise. — In  addition  to  the  exer- 
cise which  is  voluntarily  taken  at  school  in  the  form 
of  play,  there  is,  many  times,  a  necessity  for  a  course 
of  systematic  physical  training.  %  This  necessity 
arises  from  the  fact  that  many  pupils  among  those 
who  most  need  it  will  not  take  exercise  of  their 
own  accord ;  and  from  the  fact  that  regulated  ex- 
ercises can  be  made  better  to  secure  an  equal  and 
harmonious  development  of  the  different  organs  of 
the  body.     The  moral  advantages  arising  from  play 


EXERCISE.  223 

are  of  higher  value  than  any  which  can  be  derived 
from  systematic  gymnastics ;  but  the  latter  are  better 
calculated  to  give  perfection  and  strength  to  the 
body  and  quickness  and  grace  to  its  movements. 
Both  seem  indispensable. 

I  do  not  advocate  the  introduction  of  physical 
training  into  our  schools  for  the  purpose  of  develop- 
ing the  human  body  to  its  greatest  strength,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  men  like  Dr.  Windship,  who  can 
lift  a  ton  or  more, — for  the  time  and  trouble  re- 
quired to  do  it  might  be  devoted  to  a  better  object, — 
but  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  body  in  a  healthy 
condition  and  fitting  it  for  its  highest  uses.  For 
want  of  such  training,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
human  family  are  weak  and  sickly,  unable  to  per- 
form the  work  of  life,  and  subject  to  an  early  death. 
Without  going  into  detail,  the  subject  under 
consideration  will  be  treated  of  in  the  following 
order: — 

1st.  The  Place  for  Exercising. 

2d.   The  Times  for  Exercising. 

3d.   The  Manner  of  Exercising. 

4th.  The  Teacher  at  the  Exercises. 

The  Place  for  Exercising, — When  instruction  is 
given  in  skating,  swimming,  rowing,  riding  on 
horseback,  &c.,  nothing  more  definite  can  be  stated 
with  reference  to  the  place  for  exercising  than  that 
it  should  be  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

In  fair  weather  the  school-grounds  may  be  used 
for  various  gymnastic  exercises.  Military  drills, 
when  deemed  proper  for  introduction  into  schools, 
are  best  conducted  out-of-doors ;  and,  indeed,  most 

21 


224      THE  EMPLOYMENTS  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

of  the  apparatus  of  our  gymnasiums  can  be  erected 
and  used  almost  as  well  in  a  yard  as  in  a  room. 
The  difficulty  in  the  way  is  that  it  soon  decays  when 
exposed  to  the  weather ;  and  rain,  snow,  and  cold 
prevent  the  use  of  it  in  exercising,  many  times, 
when  exercise  is  most  needed. 

The  school-room  may  be  used  as  a  place  for  exer- 
cise, if  care  be  taken  to  engage  only  in  such  exer- 
cises as  do  not  raise  the  dust  from  the  floor  or  dis- 
turb the  furniture.  In  most  of  our  ungraded  country 
schools,  teachers  have  no  other  resource;  but,  by 
stationing  their  pupils  properly  about  the  room,  they 
can  have  them  go  through  with  vocal  gymnastic 
exercises,  and  exercises  calculated  to  expand  the 
lungs  and  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  chest, 
back,  arms,  &c.  The  employment  of  such  simple 
apparatus  as  dumb-bells  and  wands  will  occasion  no 
inconvenience.  No  one  who  has  not  used  them  can 
estimate  fully  the  value  of  such  exercises,  when 
taken  at  proper  intervals  during  days  when  pupils 
would  otherwise  be  confined  to  the  school-room. 

A  room  specially  arranged  for  the  purpose  and 
supplied  with  suitable  apparatus  is,  of  course,  the 
best  place  in  which  to  conduct  the  exercises  neces- 
sary in  systematic  physical  training.  ITo  detailed 
description  of  such  a  room  can  here  be  given ;  but 
it  may  be  said  that  it  should  be  amply  large  to  ac- 
commodate those  who  are  to  practice  their  exercises  in 
it,  well  lighted,  well  ventilated,  and  properly  heated. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  it  free  from  dust. 
Many  of  the  most  appropriate  exercises  for  schools 
admit  the  accompaniment  of  music ;  and  a  school- 
gymnasium  would  be  very  incomplete  without  a 


EXERCISE.  225 

piano.  As  to  other  apparatus,  if  the  gymnasium  be 
intended  for  both  sexes,  the  bags,  dumb-bells,  wands, 
rings,  &c.,  as  arranged  by  Dr.  Lewis,  are  decidedly 
the  most  appropriate ;  but  if  for  boys  alone,  it  may 
be  well,  in  addition,  to  provide  some  of  the  appa- 
ratus used  in  common  gymnasiums,  for  leaping, 
climbing,  lifting,  balancing,  &c.  &c. 

The  Times  for  Exercising, — Every  good  teacher  has 
a  fixed  time  for  hearing  the  recitations  of  each  class ; 
and  if  he  intends  to  subject  his  pupils  to  a  system- 
atic course  of  physical  training,  he  will  find  it  equally 
necessary  to  appoint  regular  times  for  doing  it. 
"Weak  muscles  cannot  be  made  strong,  stooped 
shoulders  cannot  be  made  erect,  narrow  chests  can- 
not be  made  broad  and  deep,  without  going  through 
a  regular  and  methodical  series  of  exercises.  The 
exact  hour  of  the  school-day  when  such  exercises 
should  be  engaged  in  must  depend  upon  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  school.  For  a  day-school,  per- 
haps the  middle  of  the  forenoon  and  the  middle  of 
the  afternoon  sessions  would  be  the  most  appro- 
priate times;  and  for  a  Boarding-School,  in  the 
morning  before  the  school  regularly  opens,  and  in 
the  evening  after  it  regularly  closes.  It  is  unwise 
to  engage  in  violent  exercises  immediately  after 
meals;  and  the  exercises  ought  never  to  be  pro- 
longed beyond  a  reasonable  length. 

The  Manner  of  Exercising, — To  describe  in  full 
detail  the  various  kinds  of  exercises  practiced  in 
gymnasiums  would  require  volumes,  and,  of  course, 
no  attempt  will  be  made  to  do  so  here.  A  few 
general  remarks  only  will  be  made;  and  those  who 
would  investigate  the  matter  further  must  have 


226  THE   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

recourse  to  books  whicli  treat  specially  upon  this 
subject. 

The  principal  object  of  physical  training  is  to 
secure  strength  of  body  combined  with  quickness 
and  grace  of  movement.  An  increase  of  mere 
animal  strength  is  not  what  is  wanted:  horses, 
oxen,  steam-machinery,  are  designed  to  do  our 
heavy  pulling  and  lifting.  Nor  is  it  ability  to 
perform  wonderful  feats:  a  circus-rider  cannot  be 
regarded  as  the  highest  type  of  a  man.  All  our 
energy  should  not  be  spent  in  training  the  body, 
any  more  than  in  developing  the  mind.  The  body 
must  be  made  strong  and  tough,  but  not  at  the 
expense  of  beauty  of  form  or  of  quickness  and 
grace  of  movement;  and  no  corporeal  perfection 
ought  to  be  coveted,  if  its  attainment  tends  to  weaken 
the  mind.  These  principles  admitted,  the  manner 
of  exercising  should  be  controlled  by  them.  Light 
apparatus  that  admits  of  quick  handling  is  more 
appropriate  for  school-gymnasiums  than  that  which 
is  heavy  and  can  be  moved  only  with  effort. 

Gymnastic  exercises  for  beginners  should  be  very 
simple,  and  such  as  require  little  exertion  to  perform 
them.  As  soon  as  these  can  be  performed  with 
ease,  others  more  difficult  may  be  introduced.  A 
series  of  exercises  should  be  progressive  in  diffi- 
culty. It  should  be  remembered,  also,  that  over- 
exertion is  more  hurtful  than  a  neglect  of  exercise. 

A  system  of  gymnastics  should  comprehend 
means  for  the  training  of  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body.  The  most  perfect  system,  probably,  is  that 
of  the  Swedish  gymnast  Ling.  Dr.  Dio  Lewis  has 
done  more  than  any  other  American  to  invent  appa- 


EXERCISE.  227 

ratus  suitable  for  persons  of  all  ages,  and  especially 
for  pupils  of  both  sexes  in  our  schools.  If  I  were 
selecting  apparatus  for  a  school-gymnasium,  I  would 
procure  almost  all  the  articles  he  has  invented,  with 
perhaps  a  few  of  those  used  in  ordinary  gymnasiums. 
By  means  of  such  exercises  as  are  described  in  the 
works  of  Ling,  Lewis,  and  others,  it  is  practicable 
for  a  teacher  to  conduct  his  pupils  through  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  physical  training;  at  least,  me- 
thods of  physical  education  are  not  more  difficult 
to  understand  than  methods  of  mental  education. 

Exercises  in  a  gymnasium  should  be  taken,  as  far 
as  possible,  in  the  form  of  games  or  play.  Profit 
may  be  derived  from  these  exercises  when  taken 
by  oneself,  but  much  more  if  in  company  with 
classmates  or  friends,  and  accompanied  with  music, 
conversation,  and  merriment.  Dancing,  when  pro- 
perly regulated,  is  no  less  useful  than  beautiful  as 
a  school-exercise. 

The  dress  worn  by  persons  exercising  should  be 
such  as  to  permit  the  free  movement  of  every  part 
of  the  body  and  the  unimpeded  handling  of  the 
apparatus.  Good  taste  would  dictate  that  all  the 
members  of  a  class  should  dress  alike ;  but,  of 
course,  this  adds  nothing  to  the  value  of  the  exer- 
cises. 

The  Teacher  at  the  Exercises. — Mere  practice  in  a 
gymnasium  without  end  or  method  will  prove  very 
dull  and  quite  unprofitable.  Li  nothing  is  there 
more  need  of  system  than  in  physical  culture ;  and 
to  have  system  in  a  school-gymnasium,  the  teacher 
must  direct  the  exercises.  He  must  adopt  a  plan, 
select    articles   of  apparatus,  and    determine    the 

21* 


228  THK   EMPLOYMENTS   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

metliods  of  using  tliem.  He  must  make  prepara- 
tion as  lie  would  do  to  teach  some  branch  of  learn- 
ing, and  must  require  his  pupils  to  attend  the  class 
as  regularly  and  hold  them  as  well  in  command  as 
at  an  ordinary  recitation.  Indeed,  the  teacher  in 
the  gymnasium  should  evince  the  same  qualities 
that  give  him  success  in  the  school-room. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

Government  is  that  system  of  laws  or  principles 
by  which  a  sovereign  controls  his  subjects;  and  it 
is  founded  upon  the  relation  existing  between  them. 
For  the  existence  of  a  government  of  any  kind,  a 
ruler,  those  who  are  ruled,  and  reciprocal  duties 
growing  out  of  these  relations,  are  necessary  con- 
ditions. 

In  Divine  government,  the  Sovereign  is  God,  and 
the  subjects  are  mankind;  in  state  governments, 
the  sovereign  is  the  authority  in  which  are  vested 
the  Legislative,  Judicial,  and  Executive  powers,  and 
the  subjects  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  state;  in 
family  government,  the  sovereigns  are  the  parents, 
and  the  subjects  are  the  children  and  servants ;  and 
in  school-government,  the  sovereign  is  the  teacher, 
and  the  subjects  are  the  pupils. 

The  end  of  Divine  government  is  primarily  to 
secure  to  the  Sovereign  the  love  and  reverence  of 
His  subjects.  We  cannot  for  a  moment  suppose 
that  God  would  be  satisfied  with  an  outward  obe- 
dience to  His  laws.  He  desires  that  we  should  act 
from  pure  motives, — should  give  Him  our  hearts, — 
should  leave  all  and  follow  Him. 

The  end  of  state  government  is  to  secure  public 
order.    K  a  citizen  commit  no  overt  act  against  any 

229 


230      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

other  citizen  or  against  the  state,  no  matter  how 
bad  his  thoughts  or  intentions  may  be,  the  state  is 
satisfied;  for  it  does  not  aim  to  purify  men's  hearts, 
but  only  to  punish  their  unlawful  deeds. 

The  end  of  parental  government  is  to  secure  order 
in  the  family  through  affection.  A  good  parent 
seeks  to  be  obeyed,  but  he  wants  that  kind  of  obe- 
dience which  springs  from  love.  The  aim  of  parental 
government  combines  that  of  Divine  government 
and  that  of  state  government.  In  the  family  are 
designed  to  be  trained  good  citizens  and  good 
men. 

School-government  is  family  government  trans- 
ferred to  the  school.  Its  end  is  the  same.  The 
teacher  takes  the  place  of  the  parents. 

What  it  is  proposed  to  say  on  School-Government 
may  be  embraced  under  the  following  heads : — 

I.  School-Ethics. 
n.  School-Retributions. 
m.  School-Legislation. 
IV.  School-Administration. 

By  a  close  examination,  it  will  be  seen  that  these 
subjects  follow  one  another  in  a  logical  order,  and 
that  the  classification  is  exhaustive. 

If  a  teacher  is  unacquainted  with  the  rights  and 
duties  of  his  pupils  or  his  own,  he  cannot  know  how 
to  adjust  the  affairs  of  the  school,  cannot  have  a 
basis  upon  which  to  establish  school-laws  or  admi- 
nister school-discipline. 

The  rights  of  pupils  must  be  maintained,  their 
duties  must  be  discharged;   and  to  secure  these 


SCHOOL-ETHICS.  231 

ends,  the  teacher  will  need  to  know  what  rewards 
it  will  be  proper  for  him  to  bestow,  and  what 
punishments  to  inflict ;  or,  in  other  words,  he  needs 
to  possess  a  knowledge  of  School-Retributions. 

Knowing  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong  in 
school-afltairs,  and  knowing  likewise  what  rewards 
and  what  punishments  it  is  proper  to  use  in  the 
school,  a  teacher  must  be  able  to  adjust  rewards  to 
duties  performed,  and  punishments  to  duties  neg- 
lected or  wrongs  done, — must  find  means  for  pre- 
venting and  correcting  disorder, — and  thus  legislate 
for  the  school. 

It  is  one  thing  to  make  laws,  it  is  another  to 
administer  them.  The  teacher  must  promulgate 
and  defend  his  school-laws,  he  must  decide  what 
constitutes  oflences  under  them,  and  inflict  punish- 
ment upon  the  guilty.  In  a  higher  sense,  he  must 
train  his  pupils  to  delight  in  good  order,  and  to  do 
right  because  it  is  right. 

With  any  part  of  this  work  undone  or  badly 
done,  the  government  of  the  school  will  be  just  so 
far  mere  guess-work.  With  all  of  it  well  done, 
school-government  can  be  reduced  to  a  system 
which  is  as  complete  as  it  is  beautiful. 

I.  School-Ethics. — ^Ethics  is  the  science  which 
treats  of  human  rights  and  duties.  School-Ethics 
relates  to  the  rights  and  duties  of  persons  connected 
with  the  school.  The  several  classes  of  persons 
thus  engaged  may  be  named  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Teacher. 

2.  The  General  School-Officers. 


232:  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

3.  The  Communities  that  found  and  support 
Schools. 

4.  The  Pupils. 

The  ethical  relations  of  the  teacher,  the  general 
school-officers,  and  the  communities  that  found  and 
support  schools,  will  be  found  discussed  elsewhere 
in  this  work ;  so  that  it  is  proper  in  this  connection 
to  speak  only  of  the  Duties  of  Pupils.  Besides, 
since  it  is  the  main  object  of  school-government 
to  secure  on  the  part  of  pupils  the  performance  of 
their  duties,  the  statement  and  discussion  of  these 
duties  must  be  made  specially  prominent. 

The  school-duties  of  pupils  may  be  comprehended 
under  the  following  classification : — 

1st.  Duties  to  Themselves. 

2d.  Duties  to  One  Another. 

3d.  Duties  to  the  School-Property. 

4th.  Duties  to  the  Teacher. 

5th..  Duties  to  the  General  School- Officers. 

6th.  Duties  to  the  School  as  a  Whole. 

7th.  Duties  to  Visitors  at  the  School. 

8th.  Duties  to  Society. 

9th.  Duties  to  God. 

This  classification  is  adopted  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience. It  might  be  more  or  less  general.  When 
well  understood,  indeed,  a  pupil's  duties  to  himself 
include  all  his  other  duties ;  and  a  specific  enume- 
ration of  all  these  duties  would  make  a  very  long 
list. 

It  ought  to  be  remarked  that  school-duties  have 


SCHOOL-ETHICS.  233 

the  same  ethical  basis  as  other  duties ;  but  this  is 
not  the  proper  place  to  enter  upon  an  investigation 
as  to  what  is  the  standard  of  right 

Some  general  remarks  will  be  made  upon  each 
class  of  duties,  without  attempting  to  find  all  the 
special  duties  included  in  the  class. 

Duties  to  Themselves, — A  pupil  has  duties  to  him- 
self which  the  teacher  must  see  that  he  discharges. 
Generally  considered,  these  have  respect  to  his 
person  and  his  property.  Without  being  fully 
aware  of  the  consequences,  the  young  may  do  that 
which  will  impair  their  health,  impede  their  pro- 
gress in  learning,  or  corrupt  their  morals.  They 
are  very  apt  to  injure  their  books  and  clothing.  AW 
such  acts  are  violations  of  their  duties  to  them- 
selves. 

Duties  to  One  Another, — Pupils  have  no  right  to 
take  away,  destroy,  or  injure  the  property  of  others ; 
nor  have  they  any  right  to  commit  with  respect  to 
them  an  act  of  personal  wrong.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  their  duty  to  respect  the  rights  of  others  both  with 
regard  to  persons  and  things. 

Duties  to  the  School-Property, — The  pupils  of  a  school 
should  feel  an  interest  in  protecting  and  improving 
the  school-property.  Too  often,  however,  it  is  pur- 
loined, destroyed,  or  injured  by  them. 

Duties  to  the  Teacher. — A  pupil  owes  to  his  teacher 
the  same  duties  he  owes  to  a  fellow-pupil ;  and  in 
addition  he  should  respect  and  obey  him.  What 
treason  is  in  a  state,  disrespect  and  disobedience  are 
m  a  school. 

Duties  to  the  General  School- Officers, — The  general 
management  of  schools  is  mostly  intrusted  to  bodies 


234  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   THE    SCHvOL. 

of  men,  called  School-Directors,  School-Trustees, 
School-Committees;  and  though  their  relations  to 
the  pupils  may  not  be  so  intimate  as  those  between 
teacher  and  pupils,  yet  the  duties  of  pupils  towards 
them  are  the  same  as  to  the  teacher. 

Duties  to  the  School  as  a  Whole, — It  is  the  duty  of 
the  pupils  of  a  school  to  be  regular  in  their  attend- 
ance, to  observe  all  its  rules,  and  to  honor  it  abroad 
both  by  word  and  deed. 

Duties  to  Visitors  at  the  School. — Visitors  at  a  school 
may  be  either  friends  or  strangers ;  and,  in  either 
case,  they  should  be  treated  with  kindness  and 
respect.  A  want  of  such  treatment  on  the  part  of 
pupils  will  always  show  a  want  of  good  breeding, 
for  which  teachers  and  parents  are  most  in  fault. 

Duties  to  Society/, — All  persons  have  certain  social 
duties  which  they  ought  not  to  neglect ;  but  a  more 
perfect  discharge  of  these  duties  is  reasonably  ex- 
pected from  those  who  are  educated.  If  scholars 
do  not  make  better  citizens  than  ignorant  persons, 
endowments  for  Colleges  and  Academies,  and  taxes 
for  Common  Schools,  are  greatly  misapplied.  Scho- 
lars ought  to  elevate  society  by  precept  and  example, 
and  be  the  foremost  advocates  of  social  order. 
Pupils  should  be  careful  not  to  commit  a  wrong 
with  reference  to  the  persons  or  property  of  those 
who  live  near  the  school. 

Duties  to  God. — The  plain  interpretation  of  the 
parable  of  the  talents  is  that  all  persons  will  be 
held  accountable  for  the  proper  use  of  their  natural 
abilities,  and  for  the  opportunities  of  rendering  them 
available  in  the  work  of  life.  Those  who  enjoy  the 
privileges  of  learning,  therefore,  owe  special  thanks 


SCHOOL-ETHICS.  235 

to  God  for  them,  and  have  resting  upon  them 
special  duties  towards-  Him.  Education  increases 
knowledge,  and  increased  knowledge  brings  with 
it  increased  moral  responsibility.  We  should  ex- 
pect from  scholars  more  than  from  others  a  full 
discharge  of  their  religious  obligations. 

This  brief  summary  of  the  school-duties  of  pupils 
will  be  followed  by  a  statement  of  the  offences 
which  they  are  most  likely  to  commit.  These  will 
be  arranged  in  classes  corresponding  to  the  classes 
of  school-duties.  The  use  that  will  be  made  of 
this  classification  in  the  further  treatment  of  the 
subject,  renders  it  expedient  to  state  it  conspi- 
cuously. 

Offences  against  Themselves. 

1.  Injuries  to  their  own  property. 

2.  Injuries  to  their  own  persons. 

3.  iJiTeglect  of  opportunities  of  learning. 

4.  Uncouth  manners. 

5.  Bad  habits.  ^ 

6.  Immoral  conduct.  "'^^ 

Offences  against  One  Another. 

1.  Theft. 

2.  Injury  to  property. 

3.  Trespass  upon  property. 

4.  Personal  injury. 
6.  False  accusation. 

6.  Usurpation  of  rights. 

7.  Temptation  to  wrong-doing, 

8.  Defamation. 


22 


236  the  government  of  the  school, 

Offences  against  the  School-Property. 

1.  Accidental  injury  or  destruction. 

2.  Malicious  injury  or  destruction. 

3.  Accessory  to  injury  or  destruction. 

Offences  against  the  Teacher  and  School-Offi- 
cers. 

1.  Disobedience. 

2.  Disrespect. 

3.  Conspiracy. 

4.  Injury  to  property. 

5.  Injury  to  person. 

Offences  against  the  School  as  a  Whole. 

1.  Speaking  evil  of  the  school. 

2.  A  general  disregard  of  the  school-regulations 
in  respect  to  order. 

3.  A  general  disregard  of  the  school-regulations 
in  respect  to  study. 

4.  Irregular  attendance. 

5.  Wrong  or  unworthy  conduct. 

Offences  against  Visitors  at  the  School. 

1.  Eude  treatment. 

2.  Mischievous  tricks. 

3.  Injury  to  property. 

4.  Injury  to  person. 

Offences  against  Society. 

1.  Disturbance  of  the  peace. 

2.  Injury  to  property,  or  trespass  upon  it. 

3.  Uncivil  treatment  or  injury  of  persons. 


school-retributions.  23t 

Offences  against  God. 

1.  Disregard  of  the  religious  observances  of  the 
school. 

2.  Creating  disrespect  for  sacred  things. 

3.  Immoral  speaking,  profanity,  vulgarity. 

4.  Immoral  conduct. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  this  classification  embraces 
all  the  oflences  which  may  occur  in  school,  nor  that 
some  classes  do  not  include  others;  but  the  object 
had  in  view  in  making  the  classification,  is  to  give 
point  to  the  discussion,  which  is  to  follow,  upon  the 
means  of  preventing  and  correcting  these  offences, 
and  of  training  pupils  to  guard  against  committing 
them. 

It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  enumerate  each  par- 
ticular act  of  offence,  because  intelligent  teachers 
can  readily  refer  any  given  act  to  its  own  class. 

n.  School-Retributions.— A  sovereign  can  only 
make  known  to  his  subjects  how  well  it  is  to  obey 
his  commands,  and  how  bad  it  is  to  violate  his  laws, 
by  a  system  of  rewards  and  punishments.  Laws  and 
precepts  may  of  themselves  manifest  the  will  of  the 
sovereign;  but  the  rewards  and  penalties  attached  to 
them  are  the  only  means  of  presenting  a  tangible  ex- 
pression of  the  strength  of  that  determination.  It  is 
possible  to  understand  our  ethical  relations  and  make 
laws  respecting  our  rights  and  duties  without  attach- 
ing retributions  to  them;  but  a  government  that  did 
no  more  than  this  would  not  subserve  the  ends  for 
which  governments  are  established,  either  in  state  or 
in  school.    The  sovereign  authority  must  everywhere 


238      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

exhibit  an  unflinching  purpose  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  the  government  by  rewarding  virtue  and  punish- 
ing vice. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  consider — 

1.  Rewards  for  Good  Conduct. 

2.  Punishments  for  Bad  Conduct. 

1.  Eewards  for  Good  Conduct.— l^othing  further 
is  contemplated  in  this  connection  than  to  name  those 
means  which  may  be  used  in  schools  as  rewards  for 
good  conduct.  The  adjustment  of  particular  re- 
wards to  particular  kinds  of  good  conduct  will  be 
spoken  of  elsewhere. 

In  the  Divine  government,  every  good  thought 
and  good  deed  has  its  appropriate  reward.  ''Be- 
hold, the  righteous  shall  be  recompensed  in  the  earth : 
much  more  the  wicked  and  the  sinner.'*  The  state 
seldom  directly  rewards  the  citizen  for  well-doing, 
except  for  some  extraordinary  service  done  it,  as  well- 
doing is  a  reward  in  itself,  and  the  state-machinery 
is  too  clumsy  to  do  entire  justice  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  such  a  system;  but  it  classifies  offences 
with  great  care,  and  has  fixed  penalties  which  it 
imposes  upon  those  who  commit  them.  School-gov- 
ernment partakes  of  the  nature  both  of  Divine  and 
state  government;  and  the  teacher  must  have  a  sys- 
tem of  rewards  as  well  as  a  system  of  punishments. 

The  natural  rewards  of  well-doing  in  the  school, 
as  well  as  elsewhere,  are  the  following: — 

1st.  The  Approbation  of  Relatives  and  Friends. 

2d.   The  Approbation  of  Society. 

8d.  Success  in  the  Attainment  of  Life's  true  Ends. 


SCHOOL-RETRIBUTIONS.  239 

4th.  An  Approvi7ig  Conscience. 
5th.  The  Favor  of  God. 

The  rewards  which  the  teacher  may  cause  to  fol- 
low good  conduct  are — 

1st.  Gifts. 

2d.  Honorable  Position. 

3d.  Sis  Approbation. 

With  respect  to  the  first  class  of  rewards,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  teacher  has  no  direct  control  in  de- 
termining them.  They  grow  out  of  relations  which 
he  has  little  power  to  disturb.  But,  while  these  re- 
wards are  themselves  the  fixed  results  of  good  con- 
duct in  all  moral  and  Christian  communities,  the 
most  skilful  teacher  will  need  all  his  ingenuity  in 
making  them  generally  operative  in  the  school-room. 
In  this,  indeed,  consists  the  whole  of  moral  train- 
ing,—the  most  difficult,  the  most  important,  but  the 
most  neglected,  part  of  education.  Something  will 
be  said  of  this  training  in  another  place. 

In  speaking  of  Incentives  to  Study,  these  rewards 
were  mentioned,  somewhat  more  in  detail,  as  Proper 
Incentives.  As  they  are  proper  incentives  to  study, 
they  are  so  to  good  conduct;  and  the  reader  may  un- 
derstand what  was  then  said  to  be  repeated  here. 
The  reasons  for  desiring  to  be  good  are  the  same  as 
for  desiring  to  be  wise ;  but  the  imperatives  which 
impel  us  to  seek  the  former  end  are  stronger  than 
those  which  impel  us  to  seek  the  latter.  The  voice 
of  conscience  approves  a  pupil's  industry  in  study; 
but  its  approval  is  more  emphatic  when  he  does  hia 
duty  to  his  fellows  and  to  God. 

22* 


240      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

"WTien  a  teacher  desires  to  reward  a  pupil  for  good 
conduct,  he  can  do  so  by  presenting  him  a  gift,  assign- 
ing him  an  honorable  position,  or  expressing  approval 
of  what  he  has  done.  All  of  these  are  merely  dif- 
ferent forms  of  expressing  the  teacher's  approbation. 

I  do  not  mean  by  gifts,  prizes;  though  prizes  may 
be  presented  as  an  incentive  to  good  conduct  as  well 
as  an  incentive  to  study,  and,  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances and  subject  to  the  same  conditions, 
they  may  be  as  useful  in  the  one  case  as  in  the 
other.  But  I  mean  by  gifts,  any  object  of  a  mate- 
rial nature,  as  a  book,  which  a  teacher  may  see 
proper  to  present  to  deserving  pupils.  To  such 
gifts  there  can  be  no  valid  objection  in  principle; 
but  they  should  always  be  considered  not  as  some- 
thing won^  but  as  something  earned.  Pupils  should 
act  well,  and  afterwards  receive  their  gifts, — not 
merely  act  well  with  a  view  of  obtaining  them. 

Good  conduct  in  school*  should  win  an  honorable 
position.  The  most  honorable  place  in  a  school  should 
be  given  to  the  pupil  who  stands  highest  in  charac- 
ter and  deportment,  and  not  to  the  one  who  merely 
stands  highest  as  a  scholar.  This  position  may  be 
indicated  by  place  in  class,  merit-marks,  grade  of 
diploma,  or  honorable  mention  in  public  reports. 
Teachers  have  power  to  bestow  the  honors  of  a 
school  upon  the  most  deserving;  and,  if  this  was 
always  done,  better  order  would  be  found  in  many 
schools  than  now  prevail  s.  The  material  value  of  an 
honorable  position  in  school  is  chiefly  found  in  the  re- 
commendation it  furnishes  to  the  public, — a  recom- 
mendation which  is  due  from  the  teacher  to  all  his 
pupils  who  deserve  it. 


SCHOOL-EETRIBUTIONS.  241 

A  word  of  approbation  from  a  loved  teacher  sinks 
deep  into  the  heart  of  a  pupil.  If  a  teacher  enjoys 
the  respect  and  love  of  his  pupils,  and  then  knows 
when  and  how  to  commend  them  for  good  conduct, 
he  needs  little  else  to  enable  him  to  govern  his 
school.  This  commendation  may  take  the  form  of 
words  of  approval,  a  pleased  expression  of  counte- 
nance, or  a  simple  nod  of  the  head  or  sign  of  the 
hand.  It  may  be  indicated  to  a  pupil  by  showing 
confidence  in  him,  quoting  his  example,  speaking 
well  of  him  to  his  friends,  or  recommending  him  to 
some  responsible  position  in  business.  There  are, 
indeed,  a  thousand  ways  in  which  a  teacher  may  ex- 
press his  approbation. 

2.  Punishment  for  Bad  Conduct. — The  rewards 
which  are  given  to  those  pupils  who  conduct  them- 
selves well  cannot  be  accorded  to  those  who  conduct 
themselves  badly ;  and  this  of  itself  constitutes  one 
part  of  their  punishment.  Besides  this,  however, 
there  are  certain  positive  punishments  which  are 
made  use  of  in  school,  the  most  prominent  of  which 
are  the  following : — 

1st.  JRejproof. 

2d.  JReparation  of  Damage  done. 

3d.  Performance  of  Duties  neglected. 

4th.  Deprivation  of  Privileges. 

6th.  Acknowledgment  of  an  Offence  before  the  School. 

6th.  Confinement. 

7th.  Personal  Chastisement. 

8th.  Suspension  from  School. 

9th.  Dismission  from  School. 


242      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

A  teacher  is  expected  to  govern  Ms  school,  and 
there  is  vested  in  him  all  the  authority  necessary 
for  that  purpose.  He  is  in  the  place  of  the  parent; 
and  all  that  a  parent  can  legally  do  in  the  govern- 
ment of  his  children,  a  teacher  can  do  in  the  govern- 
ment of  his  pupils.  Teachers  frequently  inflict  all 
the  punishments  named  in  the  preceding  list,  and 
they  ought  everywhere  to  have  the  power  to  do  so.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  generally  have  the  power ;  but 
sometimes  a  provision  is  made  that  a  pupil  shall 
be  suspended  or  dismissed  from  school  only  after 
the  consent  of  the  General  School-Officers  shall 
have  been  obtained. 

A  few  remarks  concerning  each  form  of  punish- 
ment will  place  the  subject  in  a  better  light. 

Reproof, — This  is  the  most  common  kind  of 
punishment,  and  many  teachers  seldom  find  it 
necessary  to  inflict  any  other.  It  may  be  mild  or 
severe,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  oftence.  Some- 
times a  look  of  disapproval,  a  shake  of  the  head, 
or  the  pointing  of  a  finger,  will  be  sufficient;  and 
sometimes  it  takes  earnest  words  again  and  again 
repeated  to  arouse  the  oflender  to  a  proper  sense  of 
his  duties.  Circumstances  may  render  it  politic  to 
administer  reproof  publicly ;  but,  as  a  general  rule, 
private  admonition  is  much  more  effectual. 

Reparation  of  Damage  done. — When  a  pupil  destroys 
the  property  of  the  school  or  of  a  fellow-pupil,  it  is 
his  duty  to  replace  it;  and  when  he  injures  such 
property  he  ought  to  repair  the  damage  done.  If 
the  destruction  or  injury  be  wilful,  some  additional 
punishment  should  be  inflicted. 

Performance  of  Duties  neglected. — Pupils  often  neg- 


SCHOOL-RETRIBUTIONS.  243 

lect  to  prepare  their  lessons  or  perform  their  tasks 
when  they  should  do  so.  In  such  cases,  little  just 
complaint  can  be  made  if  the  teacher  compel  them 
to  occupy  a  part  or  the  whole  of  their  play-time  in 
the  performance  of  their  neglected  duties. 

Deprivation  of  Privileges. — ^In  state-government,  the 
abuse  of  a  privilege  is  frequently  followed  by  its 
forfeiture.  The  same  principle  may  be  applied  with 
good  effect  in  school-government. 

Acknowledgment  of  an  Offence  before  the  School. — 
Such  an  acknowledgment  ought  only  to  be  required 
when  the  offence  is  a  grave  one  and  of  a  public 
character.  When  one  pupil  has  wronged  a  fellow- 
pupil  publicly,  or  wronged  a  number  of  his  fellow- 
pupils,  it  is  appropriate.  A  mismanaged  case  of 
inflicting  punishment  in  this  way  is  calculated  to 
do  much  harm. 

Confinement. — ^A  pupil  may  very  properly,  for  cer- 
tain offences,  be  detained  in  the  school  after  the 
school  shall  be  dismissed,  or  during  recesses 
or  intermissions.  I  have  thought  that  solitary  con- 
finement in  a  small  room,  suitably  prepared,  for 
hours  or  days,  during  school-time  or  during  play- 
time, might  be  a  more  effectual  and  a  less  degrading 
punishment  for  graver  offences  than  that  with  the 
rod. 

Personal  Chastisement — There  are  cases  in  many 
schools  in  which  force  must  be  used  to  compel 
obedience ;  and  in  these  cases  it  ought  to  be  used. 
It  is  a  means  of  governing,  however,  that  needs  to 
be  managed  with  the  utmost  care. 

Suspension  from  School — ^When  a  pupil  in  a  school 
is  doing  harm  to  others,  and  no  good  for  himself, 


244      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

he  should  be  suspended  from  school  until  his  refor- 
mation shall  be  effected. 

Dismission  from  School, — ^In  case  no  reformation  is 
probable,  dismission  from  school  may  take  place. 
Teachers  should  remember,  however,  that  the  con- 
sequences of  such  a  punishment  last  through  life ; 
and  it  should  not,  therefore,  be  inflicted  without 
sufficient  cause. 

It  is  maintained  that  all  the  kinds  of  punishment 
named  in  the  preceding  list  are  proper  to  be  used 
by  the  teacher  in  the  government  of  the  school; 
but  some  of  them  may  be  used  in  such  a  way  as  to 
do  great  mischief.     A  few  examples  will  be  given. 

Scolding. — A  scolding  teacher  will  always  have  a 
disorderly  school.  Reproof  when  constantly  given 
loses  all  its  good  effect.  Let  a  teacher  contract  the 
habit  of  scolding,  and  he  will  soon  render  himself 
and  his  pupils  unhappy,  and  the  work  of  the  school 
unpleasant. 

Expressions  of  Contempt — A  thoughtless  teacher 
may  use  such  expressions  in  reference  to  the  moral 
condition  of  the  family  of  a  pupil,  or  in  reference 
to  some  physical  defect  or  mental  peculiarity  of  his 
own;  but  they  never  accomplish  any  good,  and 
mostly  do  harm.  Sarcastic  remarks,  or  such  names 
as  numskull,  blockhead,  dunce,  &c.  &c.,  do  not  be- 
come a  teacher  in  speaking  either  to  or  of  his  pupils. 

Personal  Indignities. — There  are  cases  in  which  a 
teacher  would  be  justifiable  in  using  corporal  punish- 
ment; but  it  ought  always  to  be  done  in  a  becoming 
manner.  Good  never  results  from  the  infliction  of 
such  personal  indignities  as  pulling  an  ear,  twisting 
the  hair,  snapping  the  forehead,  &c.  &c. 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  245 

Prolonged  Tortures. — In  the  dark  ages  oi  the  pro- 
fession, teachers  sometimes  resorted  to  punishments 
like  the  following:  holding  a  book  in  the  hand  with 
the  arm  stretched  out  horizontally  from  the  body, 
standing  on  one  foot,  stooping  down  or  leaning 
forward  so  as  to  touch  with  the  finger  a  nail  in  the 
floor,  &c.  &c.;  but  these  days  have  almost  passed. 

m.  School-Legislation.— Having  found  what 
duties  pupils  have,  and  how  these  duties  can  be 
violated,  what  rewards  may  be  conferred  upon  the 
good,  and  what  penalties  may  be  inflicted  upon  the 
bad,  we  are  ready  to  engage  in  the  work  of  making 
laws  for  the  school.  Arbitrary  and  unjust  laws  are 
hurtful  anywhere,  but  nowhere  more  so  than  when 
used  to  control  the  young.  For  those  proposed 
here,  an  effort  will  be  made  to  establish  a  philo- 
sophical basis. 

The  ends  of  School-Legislation  may  be  stated  as 
follows : — 

1.  To  FIND  Means  of  preventing  Disorder  in 
School. 

2.  To  FIND  Means  of  coRRECTiNa  Disorder  in 
School. 

3.  To  FIND  Means  of  inducing  Pupils  to  dis- 
charge THEIR  Duties  of  their  own  Accord. 

Much  of  the  disorder  in  school  may  be  prevented 
by  judicious  regulations.  The  most  judicious  regu- 
lations will  not  prevent  all  disorder;  and  such  as 
cannot  be  prevented  must  be  corrected.  It  is  not 
enough  simply  to  secure  good  order  in  a  school, 


246      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

either  by  preventive  or  corrective  means,  or  both ; 
the  pupils  must  be  induced  by  the  process  of  train- 
ing to  which  they  are  subjected  to  discharge  all  their 
duties  freely  and  of  their  own  accord.  It  is  the  per- 
fection of  good  government  in  a  school  to  make  the 
pupils  capable  of  governing  themselves. 

1.  Means  of  preventing  Disorder. — Disorder  in 
a  school  is  owing  to  certain  causes  which  can  often 
be  removed  before  they  produce  any  bad  results. 
These  causes  may  be  generalized  as  follows : — 

1st.  Unsuitable  Accommodations. 
2d.   Unqualified  Teachers. 
3d.  Bad  Management. 

So  much  either  has  been,  or  will  be,  said  on  each 
of  these  points  in  other  connections,  that  no  long 
discussion  is  needed  here. 

Unsuitable  Accommodations. — These  have  reference 
to  unsuitable  school-grounds,  school-houses,  and 
school-furniture.  If  play-grounds  are  too  small, 
trespasses  will  be  committed  in  the  neighboring 
fields  or  on  the  adjacent  highway.  It  is  impossible 
to  have  good  order  in  a  room  badly  lighted,  poorly 
heated,  or  ill  ventilated,  or  in  one  into  which  a 
hundred  pupils  are  crowded  that  w^as  designed  to 
accommodate  but  fifty.  With  seats  too  close  to- 
gether or  so  arranged  that  the  movement  of  one 
pupil  always  disturbs  a  number  of  others;  with 
desks  too  low  or  too  high;  with  impure  air  to 
breathe,  limbs  shivering  with  cold  or  burning  with 
heat ;  with  the  glaring  sun  streaming  his  dazzling 
rays  full  in  their  faces;  with  school-room  dark,  dull, 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  247 

and  dirty,  it  is  no  wonder  that  children  are  restless. 
The  school-authorities  ought  to  provide  means  of 
removing  such  causes  of  disorder. 

Unqualified  Teachers, — Some  persons  seem  born  to 
command.  They  naturally  take  the  lead  in  affairs. 
Napoleon  among  his  schoolmates  at  Brienne,  and 
"Washington  with  the  comrades  of  his  youth  in 
Virginia,  both  exhibited  those  traits  of  character 
which  eminently  fitted  them  to  lead  the  armies  of 
their  respective  countries.  Let  a  person  who  has 
a  natural  capacity  for  governing  take  charge  of  a 
school,  and  the  pupils  at  once  instinctively  under- 
stand that  they  must  obey,  and  act  accordingly; 
while  the  commands  of  another  possessing  no  such 
capacity  would  be  unceremoniously  disregarded. 
A  school  taught  by  one  who  has  the  gift  of  govern- 
ing seems  to  govern  itself;  but  in  reality  it  is 
governed  by  the  unconscious  working  of  the  pecu- 
liar energies  of  the  teacher.  On  the  contrary,  no 
effort  can  preserve  order  in  a  school  if  such  a  gift 
be  wanting  in  its  head.  Between  those  who  can 
govern  without  effort,  and  those  who  cannot  govern 
with  all  the  effort  they  can  make,  there  will  be 
found  a  large  number  of  persons  who,  if  they  could 
never  learn  to  manage  large  bodies  of  men,  can  at 
least  acquire  the  power  of  governing  a  school  suc- 
cessfully. Such  persons  must  cultivate  the  talent 
for  governing.  A  disorderly  school  is  prima  facie 
evidence  of  incapacity  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
and  he  must  either  adopt  a  rigid  course  of  self-dis- 
cipline, or  give  place  to  another  better  qualified. 
The  teacher,  who  is  to  a  great  extent  the  source  of 
law  in  the  school,  must  be  himself  subject  to  law. 

23 


248      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

It  may  be  proper  to  name  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant qualifications  which  a  teacher  must  possess 
in  order  to  govern  well. 

He  ought  to  have  ^polished  manners;  for,  if  he  is 
rude  and  noisy,  it  is  not  likely  his  pupils  will  be 
polite  and  quiet.  He  should  have  no  bad  habits, 
for  the  young  are  both  good  critics  and  quick  imi- 
tators. He  should  be  a  scholar;  for  otherwise  his 
pretensions  will  eventually  be  discovered,  and  create 
towards  him  disrespect,  if  not  contempt.  He  must 
;plan  judiciously ^ — wisely  adajpt  means  to  ends, — or  his 
pupils  will  first  be  led  to  question  his  ability  and 
afterwards  to  disregard  his  authority.  He  must 
exhibit  self -confidence  and  self-control;  for  these  quali- 
ties are  necessary  to  initiate  authority,  and  almost 
equally  necessary  to  maintain  it.  He  must  have 
firmness;  for  a  fickle-minded  teacher,  who  does  to- 
day what  he  will  undo  to-morrow,  who  makes  laws 
and  fails  to  execute  them,  who  prosecutes  nothing 
to  the  end,  can  never  inspire  confidence  among  his 
pupils  or  command  their  respect.  He  must  be  con- 
sistent,— regulating  the  affairs  of  the  school  upon 
well-settled  principles  of  justice  and  policy ;  for  if 
it  is  suspected  that  his  enactments  are  arbitrary, 
his  rewards  and  punishments  the  results  of  whim, 
caprice,  or  prejudice,  there  will  be  an  end  to  all 
voluntary  obedience,  and  a  virtual  revolution  in  the 
school.  He  must  be  courageous;  for  every  school 
has  crises  which  the  weak  and  timid  will  be  unable 
to  control.  He  must  be  just;  for  favoritism  and 
partiality  will  do  much  to  undermine  his  authority. 
He  must  have  sympathy  with  children, — entering 
easily  into  their  joys  and  sorrows,  loving  their  com- 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  249 

pany,  and  taking  an  interest  in  what  interests  them; 
for  otherwise  his  government  will  be  cold  and  for- 
mal, and  secure  at  best  but  a  cold  and  formal  obe- 
dience. He  must  be  tolerant;  for  party-feelings 
and  party-interests  will  exhibit  themselves  in  the 
school-room,  and  he  must  know  how  to  temper  all 
without  taking  sides  with  any.  He  must  be  kind^ — 
for  kindness  is  the  solvent  to  which  all  that  is 
wrong  in  the  human  bosom  yields  most  readily, — 
and  patient;  for  patience  is  necessary  to  enable  him 
to  wait  while  kindness  works. 

Bad  Management, — Bad  management  is  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  sources  of  disorder  in  a  school.  If  a 
school  be  well  organized,  its  classes  well  arranged, 
its  work  well  systematized;  if  pupils  be  properly 
employed  in  study,  in  recitation,  in  exercise;  if 
school-government  be  well  understood  and  wisely 
administered,  a  large  proportion  of  the  offences 
which  now  occur  in  school  will  disappear. 

To  give  details  on  these  points,  however,  would 
be  to  repeat  what  has  already  been  said;  and  a  few 
remarks  only  will  be  added  concerning  provisions 
which  may  be  made  to  prevent  much  disorder,  and 
which  have  not  been  spoken  of  elsewhere. 

Rules. — A  few  plain  rules,  informing  pupils  as  to 
their  duties  and  obligations,  will  tend  to  promote 
good  order  in  a  school.  There  must  be  rules,  either 
written  or  unwritten;  and  I  think  it  is  decidedly 
better  to  have  the  most  important  of  them  written, 
— better,  because  the  pupils  can  frequently  read 
them  for  themselves,  and  because  the  teacher  in 
enforcing  them  does  not  seem  to  act  arbitrarily. 

Plenty  of  Work  for  Pupils. — Mischief  is   mostly 


250      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

done  by  idlers.  There  should  be  no  unoccupied 
time  in  school-hours;  and  even  the  exercises  of  the 
play-ground  may  be  to  some  extent  regulated. 

Close  Inspection. — A  pupil  who  knows  that  his 
work  will  be  closely  inspected  will  be  more  apt  to 
take  pains  in  doing  it.  If  he  feels  that  the  watch- 
ful eye  of  the  teacher  follows  him  everywhere,  he 
will  hesitate  longer  about  engaging  in  what  is 
wrong.  A  military  officer  is  not  satisfied  with  the 
general  appearance  of  his  men  along  the  line,  but 
he  examines  the  condition  of  every  man  and  every 
musket.  The  teacher  must  be  equally  close  in  his 
inspections.  He  must  remember  that  the  good  con- 
duct of  a  school  is  made  up  of  the  good  conduct  of 
the  individuals  who  are  members  of  it.  If  a  teacher 
cannot  make  such  inspections  himself  (and  this  may 
be  the  case  in  a  large  school),  he  must  require  very 
strict  reports  from  his  assistants. 

Co-education  of  the  Sexes, — The  regulated  inter- 
course of  the  two  sexes  in  the  school,  as  in  the 
family,  tends  to  the  good  of  both,  intellectually  and 
morally.  It  brings  the  restraints  of  public  opinion 
into  the  school,  and  thus  prevents  disorder.  It 
raises  the  moral  standard  of  the  school,  and  the 
teacher  can  always  be  sure  of  large  sympathy  among 
the  pupils  in  enforcing  necessary  discipline. 

2.  Means  of  Correcting  Disorder. — It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  the  same  means  which  tend  to 
prevent  disorder  in  a  school  will  also  tend  to  cor- 
rect it;  but,  however  skilfully  these  means  may  be 
applied,  however  convenient  and  pleasant  the  ac- 
commodations of  the  school  may  be,  whatever 
qualifications  the  teacher  may  possess  as  a  dibcipli- 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  251 

narian,  or  whatever  judgment  he  may  show  in  his 
school-management,  there  are  still  pupils  in  almost 
every  school  who  will  neglect  their  duties  or  be 
guilty  of  misconduct.  This  fact  at  once  brings  be- 
fore us  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  inquiry 
connected  with  school-government,  and  it  must  be 
considered  at  length. 

The  question  is,  How  shall  that  disorder  in  the 
school  be  corrected  which  the  teacher  is  not  able  to 
prevent  or  to  overcome  by  making  the  circumstances 
of  the  school-room  favorable  to  good  order? 

In  answering  this  question,  I  propose  to  consider — 

1st.   The  punishment  of  those  who  offend. 
2d.    The  pardon  of  those  loho  repent. 

1st.  The  punishment  of  those  who  offend. — It  is 
scarcely  suspected  by  many  teachers  that  school- 
punishments  can  be  regulated  by  any  principle. 
Offences  occur,  the  offenders  are  punished,  much 
or  little,  sometimes  in  one  way  and  sometimes  in 
another,  and  justice  seems  satisfied.  Very  few  teach- 
ers trouble  themselves  to  inquire  into  the  reason  for 
the  mode  or  degree  of  punishment  which  they  adopt. 
Even  the  same  teacher  punishes  similar  offences  in 
different  ways,  according  to  his  mood,  fancy,  or  ca- 
price. There  seems  to  be  a  general  conviction  that 
wrong-doers  should  be  punished;  but,  judging  from 
the  practice  in  our  schools,  nothing  has  been  settled 
as  to  why  or  how.  Sad  as  is  the  confusion  in  me- 
thods of  teaching  and  in  plans  of  managing  schools, 
there  is  no  department  relating  to  education  in  which 
reform  is  more  needed  than  in  that  of  school-govern- 
ment. 

23* 


252      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

In  the  Divine  government  there  is  punishment  for 
wrong-doing.  God  has  done  all  that  could  be  done 
to  prevent  sin.  He  has  given  man  a  habitation  every 
way  suited  to  his  wants.  All  the  circumstances  by 
which  he  is  surrounded  are  calculated  to  elevate  and 
ennoble  him.  "Wisely  as  God  could  plan  it,  the  uni- 
verse is  so  ordered  as  to  prevent  wrong-doing. 

But  the  human  will  was  made  free,  and  it  was 
foreseen  that  man  would  lose  sight  of  his  highest 
interests,  forget  God,  and  commit  sin.  To  correct 
these  evils,  to  win  men  back  to  purity  of  thought 
and  uprightness  of  life,  a  system  of  punishments 
was  instituted.  lS[o  one  can  doubt  the  existence 
of  such  a  system,  for,  although  he  may  not  have 
studied  its  philosophy,  he  has  witnessed  its  opera- 
tion. 

If  now  the  principles  that  underlie  the  system 
of  punishments  in  the  Divine  government  can  be 
ascertained,  among  them  will  be  found  those  which 
should  be  applied  in  school-government.  The  Di- 
vine Mind,  indeed,  can  make  a  perfect  adjustment 
of  punishments  to  offences,  which  no  human  skill 
can  do ;  but  all  forms  of  government  among  men, 
whether  in  the  state,  the  family,  or  the  school,  will 
subserve  the  ends  for  which  they  are  established  in 
proportion  as  they  pattern  after  the  beautiful  system 
of  retributive  laws  by  which  God  governs  His  moral 
universe. 

Punishments  in  the  Divine  government  are  de- 
signed to  accomplish  three  ends, — viz. :  the  reforma- 
Hon  of  wrong-doers;  the  warning  of  those  who  are  in 
danger  of  becoming  wrong-doers;  and  the  manifesiaiion 
of  the  Divine  displeasure  with  respect  to  wrong-doing    A 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  253 

man  eats  too  much,  and  gets  the  dyspepsia.  He 
learns  in  consequence  to  eat  more  moderately; 
others  profit  in  eating  by  his  example;  and  the 
Creator,  in  the  emphatic  language  of  sickness  and 
pain,  shows  His  displeasure  at  the  violation  of  His 
laws.  The  upbraiding  voice  of  conscience  oft- 
times  turns  the  guilty  back  in  their  downward 
course,  warns  those  who  have  not  fallen  so  far  into 
wickedness  by  example,  and  expresses  God's  ex- 
ceeding great  hatred  of  sin.  It  is  believed  that 
such  instances  as  these  fully  exemplify  the  ends 
for  which  all  punishments  of  Divine  origin  were 
established. 

The  objects  of  school-punishments  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Divine  punishments.  If  a  pupil  commits 
a  fault,  his  punishment  should  tend  to  prevent  his 
repeating  it,  serve  as  a  warning  to  his  school-fellows, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  manifest  the  teacher's  disap- 
probation of  the  act.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that 
all  school-punishments  that  are  not  calculated  to 
effect  these  objects  are  either  improper  in  them- 
selves or  improperly  applied. 

It  follows,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  school- 
punishments  are  identical  in  design  with  the  Divine 
punishments,  and,  consequently,  must  be  controlled 
by  the  same  principles.  The  task  remains  of  point- 
ing out  and  applying  these  principles. 

From  careful  observation  in  respect  to  the  work- 
ings of  Providence  in  the  affairs  of  men,  I  infer 
that  the  leading  principles  according  to  which  God 
regulates  the  penalties  He  imposes  for  wrong-doing 
are  the  following: — 


254      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

1st.  That 'punishments  invariably  follow  offences. 

2d.  That  all  offences  are  punished  in  proportion  r^ 
their  ynagnitude. 

3d.  That  each  class  of  offences  has  its  own  kind  of 
punishments. 

4th.  That  all  punishments  are  connected  to  the  offences 
as  effects  to  causes. 

Some  statement  of  tlie  grounds  upon  which  these 
principles  rest  will  be  given. 

That  punishment  invariably  follows  an  offence 
appears  from  history,  from  observation,  and  from 
personal  experience.  In  a  just  government,  it  could 
not  be  otherwise.  Every  page  of  history  tells  the 
story  of  the  punishments  inflicted  upon  wicked 
men  and  wicked  nations ;  and  this  story,  when  well 
understood,  reveals  the  fact  that  no  such  men  or  such 
nations  escaped  it.  Common  observation  teaches 
the  same  lesson.  The  murderer  is  always  wretched, 
and  may  be  imprisoned  or  hanged.  The  liar  is  not 
believed  when  he  tells  the  truth.  The  dishonest 
man  is  not  trusted.  The  drunkard  dies  in  want 
and  misery.  The  miser  hardens  his  heart  and  is 
despised.  The  sinner,  no  matter  what  may  be  the 
nature  of  his  sin,  is  upbraided  by  his  conscience, — a 
fire  that  is  never  quenched.  Our  own  hearts  reveal 
the  same  truth.  We  are  all  conscious  that  if  we 
sin  we  must  suffer.  No  man  in  his  senses  ever  yet 
thought  a  bad  thought  or  did  a  bad  deed  and  re- 
mained unpunished,  unless  his  heart  had  become 
stone  and  himself  a  brute, — which  is  in  itself  the 
heaviest  punishment  God  inflicts  upon  men.  Sin 
is  moral  sickness;  and  moral  sickness  must  be  at- 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  255 

tended  with  moral  pain.  Justice  demands  the 
enforcement  of  this  law,  and  God  has  declared  in 
His  Word  that  He  will  enforce  it. 

In  the  Divine  government  all  offences  are  pun- 
ished in  proportion  to  their  magnitude.  Few  stripes 
or  many  are  used,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offence.  This  principle  necessarily  results  from 
the  Divine  perfections ;  but  it  is  also  inferable  from 
experience.  Every  individual  is  aware  that  his 
health  and  strength  are  impaired  in  proportion  as  he 
violates  the  laws  that  regulate  his  organic  constitu- 
tion ;  and  every  individual  is  no  less  sensible  that 
the  moral  nature  is  damaged  to  the  same  extent 
that  moral  laws  are  violated.  Each  one  can  settle 
the  question  for  himself  by  an  appeal  to  his  own 
consciousness. 

Each  class  of  offences  has  its  own  kind  of  punish- 
ments. Different  classes  of  offences  arise  from  the 
violation  of  different  kinds  of  laws,  and  the  nature 
of  the  punishment  has  been  made  to  correspond  to 
the  nature  of  the  offence.  We  may  obey  a  law  of 
one  kind  and  disobey  a  law  of  another  kind;  and 
pleasure  will  result  from  our  conduct  in  the  former, 
and  pain  in  the  latter  case.  A  man  may  observe 
the  laws  of  economy  and  become  rich,  and  at  the 
same  time  live  in  habitual  disregard  of  moral  and 
religious  duties ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  good  men 
do  not  always  prosper  in  business.  A  leaky  ship 
with  pious,  self-sacrificing  missionaries  on  board 
might  founder  in  a  storm,  while  a  strong,  stanch 
vessel  manned  by  a  crew  of  lawless  pirates  would 
safely  outride  the  dangers  of  wave  and  wind. 
Health  and  strength  may  be  enjoyed  by  those  who 


256      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

use  tLem  in  injuring  their  fellow-men,  while  ill 
health  and  physical  debility  are  the  portion  of  such 
as  go  about  doing  good. 

These  seeming  contradictions  and  inconsistencies 
of  the  Divine  government  admit  an  explanation. 
The  Divine  laws  as  they  operate  upon  men  have  been 
divided  into  three  great  classes, — viz. :  first,  physical 
laws^  or  those  which  govern  the  material  world; 
second,  organic  laws,  or  those  which  relate  to  vege- 
table and  animal  structures;  third,  moral  laws,  or 
those  which  were  designed  to  control  intelligent 
and  responsible  beings.  This  classification  is  sufii- 
ciently  correct  and  exhaustive  for  my  present  pur- 
pose ;  and  little  is  risked  in  saying  that  those  who 
obey  the  laws  of  one  class  will  be  rewarded,  and 
those  who  disobey  them  will  be  punished,  entirely 
irrespective  as  to  whether  they  obey  or  disobey  the 
laws  which  belong  to  the  other  classes. 

If  a  man  leap  from  a  house-top,  ride  upon  an 
unsafe  railroad,  embark  in  a  leaky  vessel,  expose 
himself  to  the  cold  with  the  thermometer  twenty 
degrees  below  zero,  risk  his  life  beyond  his  depth 
in  water  when  he  is  unable  to  swim,  he  will  render 
himself  liable  to  be  punished  for  his  temerity;  and 
in  such  cases,  without  miraculous  interference,  there 
can  be  no  respect  of  persons. 

Let  any  individual  disregard  the  laws  that  govern 
his  corporeal  nature;  let  him  neglect  to  attend  to 
the  light  that  was  intended  to  shine  about  him,  the 
heat  that  was  designed  to  warm  him,  the  air  ho 
breathes,  the  food  he  eats,  the  clothing  he  wears,  the 
exercise  he  takes,  and  it  matters  not  if  in  himself 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  257 

he  possess  the  sum  of  human  virtues,  he  will  be- 
come weak  and  sickly,  and  perhaps  will  die. 

A  man  may  violate  all  of  the  ten  commandments, 
and  it  is  possible  he  might  still  enjoy  a  good  degree 
of  health  and  strength.  The  wicked  may  flourish, 
may  obtain  wealth  and  honor,  but  they  cannot  escape 
punishment.  God  does  not  punish  moral  evil  by 
the  infliction  of  bodily  pain,  unless  some  physical 
or  organic  law  be  broken  at  the  time  of  the  viola- 
tion of  the  moral  law.  The  penalties  imposed  in 
this  world  upon  those  guilty  of  wrong-doing  are  the 
stings  of  conscience,  the  sense  of  unworthiness,  the 
loss  of  the  respect  of  the  good,  and  the  conscious 
forfeiture  of  God's  approbation, — penalties  incom- 
parably more  severe  than  any  other  class  of  punish- 
ments. 

In  this  independent  operation  of  the  physical, 
organic,  and  moral  laws,  may  be  found  an  explana- 
tion of  what  is  sometimes  called  the  mysterious 
ways  of  Providence,  in  giving  health  and  prosperity 
to  the  bad  and  afflicting  the  good  with  sickness, 
misfortune,  and  death.  There  will  be  punishments 
in  the  future  world,  but  they  are  not  designed  in 
any  way  to  compensate  for  defects  in  the  provi- 
dential ruling  of  this  one.  God  is  just  to  all  His 
children  here;  and  from  this  we  may  conclude  He 
will  be  just  hereafter. 

All  punishments  are  connected  to  offfences  as 
effects  to  causes.  Nature's  discipline  is  a  discipline 
of  consequences.  If  any  individual  breaks  a  law, 
he  must  pay  the  penalty,  and  this  penalty  results 
directly  from  his  conduct.  Ignorance  does  not  ex- 
cuse one.   A  child  may  not  know  the  effect  of  heat; 


258      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

but  a  hot  stove  will  burn  its  hand  nevertheless.  A 
mother  may  with  the  best  intentions  administer 
poison  to  her  child  instead  of  medicine;  but,  while 
her  conscience  may  approve  her  well-meant  kind- 
ness, she  is  sorely  punished  for  her  ignorance  in  the 
loss  of  her  child. 

If  a  careless  mechanic  falls  from  a  building  and 
is  injured,  an  ignorant  miner  is  killed  by  the  ex- 
plosion of  the  gas  which  sometimes  accumulates  in 
mines,  thoughtless  children  ar^  drowned  while  bath- 
ing, does  any  one  fail  to  see  the  connection  between 
the  violation  of  these  physical  laws  and  the  punish- 
ments that  follow?  Are  not  the  laws  good,  and  the 
punishments  right  ? 

If  a  man  eat  too  much,  he  will  get  the  dyspepsia; 
if  he  take  poison,  he  may  lose  his  health  or  die ;  if 
he  overwork  or  overstudy,  expose  himself  to  too 
great  a  degree  of  heat  or  of  cold,  obstruct  the 
growth  or  the  healthy  action  of  any  of  the  vital 
organs,  he  will  experience  suffering  and  pain ;  and 
all  of  these  punishments  are  the  just  consequences 
of  his  conduct,  known  to  follow  it  as  ejffect  follows 
cause. 

If  moral  laws  be  broken,  the  consequences  will  be 
different  but  no  less  certain.  The  murderer,  thief, 
liar,  slanderer,  drunkard,  gambler,  he  who  is  dis- 
honest, and  he  who  passes  by  while  his  brother-man 
suffers  for  want  of  help, — all  carry  in  their  own  bosoms 
the  pain  consequent  upon  their  wrong-doing.  The 
prodigal  wastes  his  substance,  and  must  live  on 
husks ;  the  sluggard  will  not  work,  and  in  harvest 
he  has  nothing;  the  miser  gloats  over  his  gold  until 
his  soul  shrivels  up;  and  the  hardened  sinner  cou- 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  259 

verts  his  very  heart  to  stone,  and  dies  worse  than  a 
brute. 

Examples  need  not  be  multiplied.  In  N'ature's 
punishments  there  is  nothing  arbitrary,  nothing 
unjust,  nothing  unkind,  no  partiality.  Each  indi- 
vidual who  sufters  punishment  will  know  hereafter, 
if  he  does  not  here,  that  it  is  the  just  consequence 
of  his  own  wrong-doing  or  the  wrong-doing  of  those 
for  whom  he  was  responsible. 

An  application  must  now  be  made  of  the  great 
principles  just  explained,  to  the  punishments  of  the 
school. 

Punishments  in  the  school  must  be  made  invaria- 
bly to  follow  oflences.  The  teacher  may  not  always 
find  it  necessary  to  administer  these  punishments. 
Real  sorrow  may  follow  the  commission  of  a  fault, 
and  that  may  be  a  sufficient  punishment.  Nature's 
laws  are  inexorable.  Those  who  break  them  must 
abide  the  consequences;  and  yet  these  laws  are 
entirely  compatible  with  Divine  love.  So  those  who 
violate  the  laws  of  the  school  must  be  punished,  and 
proper  punishment  will  be  to  them  the  greatest 
kindness.  Any  escape  from  the  consequences  of 
bad  actions  only  tempts  to  further  crime.  This  is 
emphatically  the  case  with  children.  A  teacher's 
indulgence  begets  contempt  for  his  authority.  A 
timid  administration  encourages  a  spirit  of  rebellion 
among  pupils.  Let  punishments  be  just  but  cer- 
tain, and  children  will  show  little  disposition  to 
disturb  the  order  of  the  school.  ^'A  less  punish- 
ment,'* says  Beccaria,  "which  is  certain,  will  do 
more  good  than  a  greater  which  is  uncertain."  God 
punishes  wrong-doing  in  the  school  as  elsewhere, 

24 


260      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

and  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  only  to  intensify  and 
make  manifest  the  design  of  those  punishments,  or 
to  adopt  and  administer  others  in  the  same  spirit 
and  according  to  the  same  principles. 

That  all  offences  should  be  punished  in  proportion 
to  their  magnitude  in  school,  as  elsewhere,  is  a  princi- 
ple so  obvious  that  little  need  be  said  to  enforce  it. 
Motives  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  deter- 
mining the  magnitude  of  the  offence.  A  pupil  may 
do  a  good  act  from  a  bad  motive,  a  bad  act  from  a 
good  motive,  or  the  act  and  the  motive  may  both  be 
bad, — all  of  which  a  teacher  must  carefully  consider 
before  he  is  prepared  to  determine  the  punishment 
that  is  deserved. 

It  hardly  seems  questionable  that  each  class  of 
school-offences  should  have  its  own  kind  of  punish- 
ment, but,  if  true,  the  practice  of  many  teachers  is 
sadly  at  fault.  The  treatment  of  a  pupil  who  injures 
the  school-property  should  be  very  different  from 
that  of  one  who  tells  a  falsehood,  or  rebels  against 
the  teacher's  authority.  A  pupil  who  fails  to  pre- 
pare his  lesson,  one  who  quarrels  with  his  school- 
fellows, and  one  who  plays  truant,  all  ought  to  be 
punished,  but  surely  not  in  the  same  way. 

One  of  the  most  important  principles  which 
should  control  all  school-legislation  is  that  punish- 
ments should  be  connected  to  offences  as  effects  to 
causes.  It  is  presumed  that  all  those  who  inflict  pun- 
ishments upon  the  young,  if  they  think  at  all,  intend 
them  to  be  understood  as  the  effects  of  misconduct ; 
but  almost  everywhere,  in  adjusting  punishments  to 
offences,  wide  departures  are  made  from  the  laws 
that  express  the  relations  of  causes  and  effects. 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  261 

Punisliments  are  generally  felt  by  pupils  to  have  no 
firmer  basis  than  the  will  of  the  teacher,  which  they 
have  frequent  reason  to  suppose  is  moved  by  caprice 
or  passion.  In  place  of  this  arbitrary  mode  of  pun- 
ishment, there  is  needed  a  system  of  discipline  in 
schools,  founded  upon  well-established  principles, — 
the  principles  which  characterize  all  natural  punish- 
ments. 

I  have  said  that  school-punishments  are  mostly 
arbitrary  in  their  character.  The  truth  of  the 
assertion  may  be  shown  by  facts.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  school  for  children  to  be  whipped  for  breaking 
a  pane  of  glass,  making  a  bad  recitation,  or  being 
tardy  in  coming  to  school.  Threats,  scoldings, 
blows,  pulling  the  hair,  snapping  the  forehead,  crack- 
ing the  hands,  personal  indignities,  and  bodily 
tortures,  are  used  to  punish  offences  without  dis- 
crimination and  without  any  regard  to  principle. 
One  pupil  does  not  know  his  lesson,  and  his  ears 
are  boxed;  another  tears  his  book,  and  his  hands  are 
slapped  with  a  ruler;  still  another  talks  too  loud,  and 
he  is  made  to  stand  on  one  foot  or  learn  some  diffi- 
cult task.  Teachers  whip,  threaten,  scold,  almost 
at  random.  Without  the  recognition  of  any  prin- 
ciples governing  the  matter,  they  choose  punish- 
ments and  the  manner  of  inflicting  them  much 
according  to  the  mood  they  may  be  in.  At  any  rate, 
the  children  thus  punished  cannot  see  any  logical 
connection  between  the  offence  and  its  punishment, 
and  all  sense  of  moral  distinctions  becomes  oblite- 
rated in  their  minds.  A  child  can  only  be  made 
better  by  punishment  when  he  feels  that  it  is  just. 

That  school-punishments  may  be  connected  to 


262      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

oiFences  as  effects  to  causes — that  they  may  be  made 
their  natural  results — will  appear  from  a  statement  of 
examples.  If  a  pupil  injure  some  part  of  the  school- 
property,  the  natural  punishment  would  be  that  he 
should  repair  the  damage.  One  who  comes  to 
school  late  may  be  detained  just  as  long  as  he  was 
behind  time  during  recess  or  noontime.  One  who 
does  not  know  his  lesson  should  learn  it  over.  One 
who  disturbs  his  neighbor  maybe  made  to  sit  out  of 
his  reach.  One  who  throws  dirt  upon  the  floor  should 
clean  it  up.  One  who  quarrels  on  the  play-ground 
should  be  deprived  for  a  time  of  the  privileges  of 
play,  except  by  himself.  One  who  tells  a  falsehood 
may  be  compelled  to  feel  that  he  cannot  be  so  im- 
plicitly trusted.  One  who  uses  profane  or  vulgar 
language  ought  to  be  kept  away  from  his  school- 
mates, lest  his  example  do  them  harm.  One  who 
openly  disobeys  the  teacher  or  conspires  against  him 
may  be  overcome  by  force  or  sent  away.  In  all  these 
instances,  the  consequences  are  plainly  the  results  of 
the  offences,  and  any  child  will  so  understand  them. 
Other  consequences  will  also  follow, — the  loss  of  the 
good  opinion  of  the  teacher,  the  loss  of  standing  in 
tiie  school,  the  loss  of  self-respect,  &c. ;  but  the  dull 
senses  of  evil-disposed  pupils  do  not  so  easily  appre- 
ciate them.  The  teacher  should  in  all  cases  endea- 
vor to  make  his  pupils  feel  the  wrong  they  have 
done,  and  to  awaken  a  desire  on  their  part  to  avoid 
the  committing  of  like  errors  in  the  future ;  but  of 
this  in  another  connection. 

The  advantages  of  such  a  discipline  of  conse- 
quences over  a  system  of  punishments  which  are 
inflicted  arbitrarily  are  very  great.     As  the  admini^i* 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  263 

trator  of  sucli  a  system,  the  teacher  has  no  occasion 
to  lose  his  temper.  He  can  be  both  firm  and  kind. 
His  personality  is  in  great  measure  removed  from 
his  administration  of  the  school-affairs,  and  like  a 
judge  he  announces  the  offender's  sentence,  who 
feels  that  it  is  just.  If  a  pupil  is  quarrelsome  and 
disturbs  the  enjoyments  of  the  play-ground,  the 
teacher  may  say  to  him,  "I  am  sorry  to  deprive  you 
of  play,  but  you  annoy  others,  and  must  forfeit  your 
privileges  in  this  respect."  To  another,  who  whis- 
pers much  and  loud,  he  may  say,  ''  James  and  you 
are  great  friends;  I  would  like  to  have  you  sit 
together;  but  you  disturb  others  with  your  loud 
talking,  and  spend  time  in  conversation  during 
which  you  ought  to  be  at  work ;  I  must  separate 
you.''  To  still  another  he  may  say,  "I  have  done 
for  you  what  I  could :  I  have  always  been  ready  to 
assist  you  in  your  studies,  have  tried  to  treat  you 
kindly,  and  have  warned  you  of  your  faults ;  but 
you  continue  to  break  the  rules  of  the  school,  you 
mock  at  my  authority,  and  must  leave  school."  No 
one  can  fail  to  see  that  a  teacher  who  governs  a 
school  according  to  such  a  system  will  be  able  to 
do  his  pupils  much  more  good,  and  do  it  with  much 
more  satisfaction  to  himself,  than  if  he  practised 
the  method  of  controlling  his  school  by  arbitrarily 
threatening,  scolding,  and  whipping. 

In  addition  to  this,  such  a  system  of  training  is 
well  calculated  to  make  good  citizens  and  good  men. 
They  will  become  accustomed  to  trace  the  conse- 
quences of  their  acts,  and  be  ready  to  render  full 
obedience  to  the  Divine  and  civil  government, 
seeing  that  all  good  laws  are  designed  not  for  the 

24* 


264      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

pleasure  of  tlie  sovereign,  but  for  the  good  of  the 
subject. 

The  principles  now  indicated  enable  us  to  make 
a  general  adjustment  of  punishments  to  offences. 
For  this  purpose,  use  will  be  made  of  the  list  of 
school-offences  and  school-punishments  already  pre- 
sented. Details  must  be  left  to  be  arranged  by  the 
teacher  according  to  the  ever-varying  circumstances 
of  school  and  pupil. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  Themselves. 

1.  Injuries  to  their  own  "property, — When  a  pupil  in- 
jures his  own  property,  its  loss  is  the  natural  punish- 
ment. The  teacher  does  not  buy  books  or  clothes 
for  his  pupils,  and  if  they  are  injured  it  is  the  parents' 
rather  than  the  teacher's  place  to  correct  the  evil. 
The  teacher  may,  however,  reprove  the  child  and 
inform  the  parent:  I  think  his  duty  extends  no 
further. 

2.  Injuries  to  their  own  persons. — ^A  pupil  may  be 
injured  at  school  by  eating  unripe  fruit,  by  exposing 
himself  to  cold  or  wet,  and  by  going  into  danger 
in  many  ways.  If  the  teacher  has  not  specially  for- 
bidden the  act  by  which  a  pupil  injures  himself, 
with  appropriate  reproof  and  warning,  he  may  leave 
him  to  learn  wisdom  by  suffering  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  such  conduct.  If  the  teacher  has  pro- 
hibited it,  the  erring  pupil  should  be  punished  as 
provided  for  offences  against  the  teacher. 

3.  Neglect  of  opportunities  of  learning. — The  natural 
punishment  for  the  neglect  of  opportunities  of  learn- 
ing is  ignorance;  and  this  brings  with  it  many  disad- 
vantages.  The  teacher  may  do  what  he  can  to  R;ake 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  265 

his  pupils  appreciate  these  disadvantages.  For  neg- 
lect in  preparing  his  lesson,  a  pupil  may  be  made  to 
learn  it  over  again  during  play-time.  For  inatten- 
tion in  class,  he  may  be  punished  with  a  reproof,  the 
loss  of  position,  or  dismissal  from  the  class,  accord- 
ing to  the  magnitude  of  the  offence.  For  the  worst 
forms  of  laziness  the  school  can  hardly  be  made  to 
furnish  the  best  remedy.  The  best  remedy  is  either 
some  employment  that  can  be  made  to  interest  the 
person  under  treatment,  or  some  mechanical  busi- 
ness that  cannot  be  discontinued  without  detection. 
If  the  loss  of  all  that  ambitious  pupils  aspire  to 
attain  does  not  arouse  a  lazy  boy  to  study,  he  may 
possibly  be  reached  by  shame  or  ridicule.  I  doubt 
whether  corporal  punishment  in  such  cases  can  do 
much  permanent  good. 

4.  Uncouth  manners, — Uncouth  manners  are  the 
result  of  defective  home-training,  or  of  the  example 
of  rude  companions.  In  the  presence  of  the  polite 
and  refined,  children  will  soon  improve  in  this  re- 
spect. The  teacher  must  assist  them  in  the  effort 
by  watchful  care,  kind  counsel,  and  gentle  reproofs. 

5.  Bad  habits. — Bad  habits,  in  the  sense  intended 
here,  have  reference  to  such  habits  as  shrugging 
the  shoulders,  holding  the  head  to  one  side,  fum- 
bling the  hands,  spitting  constantly,  walking  heavily 
over  the  floor,  &c.  &c.  In  general,  nothing  more  is 
needed  than  to  call  the  pupils'  attention  to  the  habit 
every  time  it  is  noticed,  with  such  a  reproof  as  may 
be  deemed  appropriate.  If  the  habit  cause  the 
abuse  of  a  privilege,  the  privilege  may  be  withheld 
for  a  time.  I  once  knew  a  teacher  cure  a  boy  of 
the  habit  of  making  a  great  deal  of  noise  in  walking 


266      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

about  the  school-room,  by  compelling  him,  for  two 
or  three  days,  to  take  off  his  shoes  every  time  he  left 
his  seat. 

6.  Immoral  conduct — That  kind  of  immoral  con- 
duct which  consists  in  injuring  others  is  not  referred 
to  here,  but  only  that  which  is  wrong  independently 
of  its  effect  upon  others.  A  pupil  may  write  pro- 
fane or  vulgar  language  which  no  one  reads,  he 
may  form  the  habit  of  drinking  liquor  by  himself, 
he  may  meditate  mischief  which  he  does  not  exe- 
cute, he  may  injure  himself  secretly  in  many  ways 
that  are  immoral;  any  of  which  acts  coming  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  teacher  he  should  not  permit  to 
pass  in  silence.  In  such  cases,  however,  warning 
and  reproof  are  the  only  punishments  that  can  safely 
be  resorted  to,  unless  the  conduct  be  so  grossly  im- 
moral as  to  deserve  suspension  or  expulsion. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  One  Another. 

1.  Theft — A  child  may  take  the  property  of  an- 
other without  being  conscious  of  the  crime  he  com- 
mits. In  such  a  case,  the  immediate  restitution  of 
the  property  taken  must  be  made  to  the  loser,  and 
an  explanation  of  the  nature  of  the  offence  be  given 
to  the  one  who  took  it.  Sometimes  reproof,  more 
or  less  severe,  is  appropriate.  When  children  take 
trifling  things,  not  realizing  that  such  pilfering  is 
theft,  the  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  when 
they  are  entirely  unconscious  of  the  wrong  done. 
If  a  pupil  with  a  full  sense  of  the  offence  steal  the 
property  of  another,  he  should  be  made  to  return  it, 
be  confined  for  a  proper  length  of  time  where  Jie 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  267 

cannot  repeat  the  offence,  or  be  suspended  or  dis- 
missed from  the  school. 

2.  Injury  to  property. — A  pupil  who  injures  the 
property  of  another,  whether  by  accident  or  on  pur- 
pose, should  be  required  to  repair  it  immediately. 
If  he  injure  it  on  purpose,  confinement  would  seem 
to  be  the  proper  penalty. 

3.  Trespass  upon  property, — The  books  and  play- 
things of  some  pupils  are  often  used  by  others 
without  any  intention  of  injuring  them.  K  injury 
should  be  done  to  them,  restitution  must  be  made; 
but  if  not,  the  teacher  may  demand  the  discontinu- 
ance of  the  practice.  A  few  words  concerning  the 
rights  of  property  will  show  that  no  one  should  use 
the  property  of  another  without  his  consent. 

4.  Personal  injury. — A  slight  personal  injury  may 
be  punished  by  reproof.  Graver  personal  injuries 
ought  to  be  punished  by  confinement.  If  a  pupil's 
temper  be  such  as  to  render  his  presence  dangerous 
to  his  school-fellows,  dismission  from  school  is  the 
proper  remedy.  For  such  an  offence,  I  do  not  see 
that  physical  force  should  in  any  case  be  used,  ex- 
cept to  separate  combatants  who  are  engaged  in 
fighting. 

5.  False  accusation. — Children  sometimes  accuse 
one  another  falsely.  To  escape  punishment  them- 
selves, they  accuse  others  who  are  innocent.  This 
is  a  mean  and  cowardly  act,  and  should  be  severely 
punished.  I  do  not  think  corporal  punishment 
should  be  resorted  to;  but  the  deprivation  of  all 
the  social  privileges  of  the  school  would  seem  to  be 
the  natural  consequence  of  such  an  abuse  of  them. 
In  addition,  the  teacher  should  administer  such 


268      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

reproof  as  the  state  of  the  circumstances  seems  to 
demand. 

6.  Usurpation  of  rights. — ^Pupils  are  entitled  to  the 
positions  which  they  have  won,  and  to  the  privileges 
which  have  been  granted  them;  and  these  rights 
cannot  be  justly  usurped  by  others.  In  case  of 
usurpation,  the  mode  of  punishment  should  be 
much  the  same  as  with  respect  to  injuries  to  per- 
sons or  property. 

7.  Temptation  to  wrong-doing, —  One  of  the  most 
potent  causes  of  evil  in  respect  to  the  young  is  bad 
company.  Children  at  school  are  frequently  ex- 
posed to  very  great  temptations  to  wrong-doing 
presented  by  those  older  than  themselves.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  a  child  pure  and  innocent  to 
contract  bad  habits,  and  to  become  acquainted  with 
much  that  is  evil  in  its  character,  in  the  short  space 
of  a  few  months.  A  child  may  thus  learn  to  use 
profane  or  vulgar  language,  to  lie,  to  cheat,  and  to 
deceive.  How  shall  children  be  guarded  from  such 
temptations?  What  punishment  shall  be  meted  out 
to  those  who  tempt  them?  The  answer  is  given 
without  hesitation.  For  such  conduct  in  its  milder 
forms,  the  offender  should  be  excluded  for  a  time 
from  the  society  of  his  school-mates ;  but  in  aggra- 
vated cases,  expulsion  is  the  only  remedy.  Better 
have  a  mad  dog  or  a  viper  among  children  than 
one  whose  example  is  poison  to  the  soul  and  whose 
influence  gives  it  deadly  effect. 

8.  Defamation,  —  Pupils  sometimes  endeavor  to 
injure  the  good  name  of  their  fellow-pupils  by 
giving  currency  to  false  reports  concerning  them, 
and  in  various  other  ways.     A  pupil  guilty  in  this 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  269 

respect  may  be  made  to  acknowledge  tlie  oftence 
before  the  school,  as  it  is  a  public  wrong,  and  after- 
wards he  may  be  denied  for  a  time  the  social  privi- 
leges of  the  school. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  the  School- 
Property. 

1.  Accidental  injury  or  destruction. — Pupils  may  ac- 
cidentally deface  walls  or  furniture,  destroy  books 
or  apparatus,  and  break  windows  or  doors.  In  all 
such  cases,  the  reparation  of  the  damage  done  will 
be  the  proper  punishment. 

2.  Malicious  injury  or  destruction. — A  pupil  who 
maliciously  injures  or  destroys  school -property 
should  first  be  compelled  to  repair  all  the  damage 
done,  and  afterwards  be  reproved,  denied  privileges 
which  he  has  abused,  confined,  suspended,  or  dis- 
missed from  school,  according  to  the  grade  of  the 
off'ence. 

3.  Accessory  to  injury  or  destruction. — Those  who 
injure  or  destroy  school-property  are  often  insti- 
gated by  others  more  cautious  or  more  cunning 
than  themselves.  In  such  cases  both  parties  should 
be  punished  according  to  their  degree  of  guilt,  and 
no  difference  need  be  made  in  the  mode. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  the  Teacher 
AND  School-Officers. 

1.  Disobedience. — There  are  many  grades  of  this 
offence.  Children  often  disobey  the  requests  of  a 
teacher  from  thoughtlessness.  They  do  not  clearly 
apprehend  the  ground  of  his  requests,  and,  becoming 
absorbed  in  present  enjoyment,  they  forget  them. 


270      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

The  teacher  must  not  form  too  harsh  a  judgment  in 
sm:h  cases,  but  make  large  allowance  for  youthful 
fickleness.  A  reproof  calculated  to  induce  reflec- 
tion is  all  the  punishment  demanded.  Children 
who  disobey,  however,  must  in  all  circumstances 
suffer  the  just  consequences  of  their  disobedience. 
For  example,  the  teacher  may  forbid  throwing 
snow-balls  towards  the  school-house.  A  thought- 
less boy  disobeys,  and  breaks  a  pane  of  glass.  The 
punishment  should  consist  in  repairing  the  dam- 
age, in  being  reproved  for  the  disobedience,  or  in 
being  detained  in  the  school-house  when  the  pupils 
next  engage  in  the  sport  of  snow-balling. 

Graver  acts  of  disobedience  must  be  punished 
more  severely.  If  the  offence  be  a  private  one, 
private  reproof  and  a  private  acknowledgment  of 
the  wrong,  accompanied  with  a  promise  to  try  to 
do  better,  will  be  a  proper  mode  of  treatment;  but 
if  the  offence  be  a  public  one,  the  circumstances  may 
require  that  the  acknowledgment  and  the  promise 
be  made  before  the  school. 

An  open  or  premeditated  act  of  disobedience  may 
be  punished  by  personal  chastisement.  A  teacher 
may  make  a  request  of  a  pupil  which  he  will  openly 
refuse  to  comply  with.  Indeed,  he  may  have  pub- 
lished the  fact  among  his  fellow-pupils  that  he  would 
so  refuse.  In  such  a  case,  the  teacher  must  either 
compel  the  pupil  to  obey,  or  send  him  away  from 
the  school.  If  the  teacher  possess  the  necessary 
physical  strength,  I  prefer  the  former  alternative. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  cases  in  which  the  use  of  the 
rod  will  do  good.  Of  course,  if  a  pupil  persists  in 
his  disobedience,  he  must  be  expelled. 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  271 

2.  Disrespect — A  good  teacher  will  covet  the  real 
Jove  and  respect  of  his  pupils,  and  these  can  only 
be  obtained  by  loving  and  respecting  them.  But 
bad  pupils  may  ofter  indignities  to  the  most  faithful 
teacher,  which  his  position  will  not  allow  him  to 
submit  to  in  silence.  As,  however,  the  nature  of 
disrespect  is  similar  to  that  of  disobedience,  the 
punishments  named  for  the  latter  offence  will  be 
appropriate  for  the  former. 

3.  Conspiracy, — Treason  is  the  worst  offence  citi- 
zens can  commit  against  a  state,  because  it  seeks 
the  state's  destruction ;  and  conspiracy  in  a  school 
is  analogous  to  treason  in  a  state.  The  state  rids 
itself  of  traitors  by  imprisoning  them  for  life  or 
hanging  them ;  and  so  the  most  severe  punishments 
which  a  teacher  is  legally  authorized  to  employ 
may  be  inflicted  upon  those  pupils  who  plot  the 
overthrow  of  his  authority  or  stir  up  sedition  in 
the  school.  They  must  be  either  conquered  or  ex- 
pelled. A  compromise  will  only  postpone  the  crisis. 
A  rod  is  for  the  fool's  back,  and  in  such  a  case  I 
would  not  spare  it;  but,  unless  the  conquest  can  be 
made  complete,  the  preservation  of  order  in  the 
school  will  demand  the  expulsion  of  the  leaders  at 
least  of  a  conspiracy  against  its  authorities. 

4.  Injury  to  property, — Any  injury  pupils  may  do 
to  the  teacher's  property  should  be  repaired  or  com- 
pensated for.  If  the  pupils  do  it  maliciously,  it  is 
disrespect,  and  should  be  treated  accordingly. 

5.  Injury  to  person. — It  is  very  seldom  that  a 
teacher  is  personally  injured  by  his  pupils.  In  the 
case  of  its  being  done  intentionally,  severe  corporal 
punishment  or  dismission  from  school  seems  to  be 

25 


272      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

the  only  proper  punishments  proportionate  to  the 
offence.  Where  severe  bodily  injuries  have  been 
received,  the  matter  should  be  referred  to  the  court 
of  the  district  for  settlement. 

Off'ences  against  the  general  School-Officers  should 
be  punished  in  the  same  manner  as  those  against 
the  teacher. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  the  School 
AS  A  Whole. 

1.  Speaking  evil  of  the  school, — It  is  at  least  as  wrong 
to  slander  a  school  as  it  is  to  slander  an  individual. 
A  pupil  may  speak  evil  of  a  school  without  de- 
signing to  do  it  harm ;  and  in  such  a  case  the  cor- 
rection of  the  wrong  done,  as  far  as  possible,  is  the 
obvious  penalty.  A  proper  reproof  may  be  admi- 
nistered with  good  effect. 

With  respect  to  a  pupil  who  deliberately  speaks 
evil  of  a  school  with  which  he  is  connected,  or  who 
purposely  tries  to  injure  it,  no  other  punishment 
will  be  so  befitting  the  offence  as  expulsion. 

2.  A  general  disregard  of  the  school-regulations  in 
respect  to  order, — All  disorder  in  a  school  is  an 
offence  against  the  school  as  a  whole.  It  disturbs 
its  work,  and  lessens  its  reputation.  Most  of  these 
offences  have  other  relations,  however,  and  their 
proper  punishment  can  be  found  stated  elsewhere. 

Among  the  numerous  examples  of  offences  which 
arise  from  a  general  disregard  of  school-regulations 
in  regard  to  order,  may  be  named,  loud  talking, 
rattling  chairs  or  desks,  scraping  with  the  feet,  heavy 
walking  on  the  floor,  leaving  seats  without  liberty 
to  do  so,  &c.  &c.     One  of  the  most  effectual  means 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  273 

of  removing  such  sources  of  disorder  as  these  is  to 
cause  the  offending  pupil  to  sacrifice  the  privilege 
he  has  abused.  A  pupil  who  disturbs  the  school  by 
loud  talking  may  be  placed  at  a  distance  from  others ; 
one  who  rattles  his  chair  or  desk  may  be  made  to 
stand;  one  who  scrapes  the  floor  with  his  feet  or 
walks  heavily  over  it  ought  to  be  required  to  pro- 
cure light  shoes  or  wear  none  at  all;  and  one  who 
leaves  his  seat  without  liberty  may  be  denied  that 
liberty  when  others  enjoy  it.  The  same  mode  of 
treatment  applies  generally  to  this  class  of  offences 
whether  committed  in  the  school-room  or  on  the 
play-ground. 

There  are  graver  offfences  which  disturb  the  order 
of  the  school,  that  must  be  punished  in  a  different 
manner, — among  them,  quarrelling,  stamping  on 
the  floor,  forced  coughing,  or  any  noises  made  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  pupils  or  to  annoy  the 
teacher.  The  mildest  grade  of  such  offences  should 
be  punished  by  severe  reproof,  and  those  of  graver 
character,  first  by  confinement,  and  afterwards,  if 
necessary,  by  suspension  or  dismission. 

3.  A  general  disregard  of  the  school-regulations  in 
respect  to  study, — Every  good  teacher  directs  his 
pupils  what  to  study,  when  to  study,  and  how  to 
study.  His  regulations  in  these  respects  are  as  far 
as  possible  made  general,  and  the  disobedience  of 
one  pupil  has  a  tendency  to  affect  the  whole  school ; 
and  it  is  thus  an  oflfence  against  it. 

The  natural  punishments  in  cases  of  a  general 
disregard  of  the  school-regulations  in  respect  to 
study  are,  first,  reproof,  and  it  may  be  public,  as  the 
offence  is  a  public  one ;   the  loss  of  position,  the 


274      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

performance  of  whatever  duty  was  neglected,  and 
the  deprivation  of  such  privileges  as  may  be  deemed 
necessary  to  secure  that  performance;  and  when 
these  remedies  fail,  and  where  the  reputation  of  a 
class  or  a  school  is  at  stake,  resort  may  be  had  to 
suspension  or  dismission  from  school. 

4.  Irregular  attendance, — Parents  may  be  to  blame 
for  the  irregular  attendance  of  their  children  at 
school ;  and  in  such  cases,  though  the  children 
cannot  be  shielded  from  the  effects  of  falling  behind 
their  classes,  occupying  a  low  position  in  the  school, 
and  making  little  progress  in  study,  they  should 
receive  no  further  punishment. 

"WTien  pupils  come  late  to  school  in  consequence 
of  wasting  their  time  on  the  way,  the  teacher  may 
deprive  them  of  recess  or  intermission ;  and  they 
will  readily  understand  that  it  is  just  for  them  to 
work  while  the  other  pupils  play,  inasmuch  as  they 
enjoyed  their  play-time  in  coming  to  school. 

A  truant  is  one  who  absents  himself  from  school 
without  the  consent  of  his  parents  or  guardians. 
The  teacher,  of  course,  knows  who  are  absent,  but 
he  has  no  means  of  knowing  directly  whether  they 
are  absent  with  the  leave  of  responsible  parties  or 
without  their  leave.  Some  means  of  communicat- 
ing such  intelligence  ought  to  exist  between  teachers 
and  their  patrons.  Supposing  such  to  be  the  case, 
all  instances  of  truancy  should  be  at  once  reported 
to  the  care-takers  of  the  guilty  parties  at  home.  A 
little  vigilance  exercised  both  at  their  homes  and  at 
their  school  will,  in  nearly  all  cases,  be  sufficient  to 
correct  the  evil. 

If,  however,  as  it  sometimes  happens,  teachers  can 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION,  275 

receive  no  aid  from  parents  or  guardians,  confine- 
ment must  be  resorted  to,  or  the  truant  must  have 
his  seat  declared  vacant  for  a  time  or  altogether. 
I  do  not  think  that  personal  chastisement  is  the 
proper  remedy  for  truancy,  although  doubtless  many 
teachers  have  used  it  with  apparently  good  effect. 

5.  Wrong  or  unworthy  conduct — The  wrong  or  un- 
worthy conduct  of  its  pupils  always  injures  the 
reputation  of  a  school.  This  is  true  even  when  the 
offence  is  one  against  the  school-property,  against 
one  another,  or  against  the  teacher;  but  the  injury 
to  the  school  as  a  whole  is  much  greater  when  pupils 
are  known  to  become  intoxicated,  to  gamble,  to 
destroy  or  take  away  property,  to  disturb  neighbor- 
hoods by  unnecessary  noises,  or  to  create  riots  in 
streets  or  highways. 

The  pupils  of  a  school  who  participate  in  such 
offences  may  do  so  thoughtlessly;  and,  if  this  be  the 
case,  reproof  and  warning  will  be  sufficient  to  guard 
them  against  such  participation  in  the  future.  If, 
however,  the  offences  be  committed  deliberately 
and  with  mal-intent,  the  teacher  who  would  guard 
other  pupils  from  the  influence  of  bad  example,  and 
who  would  keep  untarnished  the  reputation  of  his 
school,  must  get  rid  as  speedily  as  possible  of  such 
dangerous  characters. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  Visitors  at 
THE  School. 

1.  JRude  treatment — Rude  treatment  on  the  part 
of  pupils  to  visitors  at  a  school  is  generally  owing 
to  ignorance;  and  reproof  and  proper  instruction 
from  the  teacher  will  be  the  proper  correctives.     If 

25* 


2T6  THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

pupils  treat  a  visitor  at  the  school  rudely,  the  teacher 
should  always  insist  on  their  making  an  apology  to 
the  person  against  whom  the  offence  was  committed. 
No  teacher  should  allow  his  pupils  to  make  sport 
even  of  a  beggar. 

2.  Mischievous  tricks, — Children  are  fond  of  fun, 
and  they  are  sometimes  disposed  to  indulge  this 
passion  at  the  expense  of  others.  I  have  often  seen 
tricks  played  by  pupils  upon  strangers  who  chanced 
to  call  at  the  school,  for  no  other  motive.  In  such 
cases,  the  correctives  just  mentioned  in  the  case  of 
rude  treatment  should  be  applied.  To  compel  a  pupil 
to  confess  himself  the  author  of  a  trick  and  to  apolo- 
gize for  it,  is  generally  an  effectual  means  of  pre- 
venting its  repetition. 

3.  Injury  to  property, — The  punishment  should  be 
the  same  as  that  for  the  injury  of  property  belonging 
to  the  teacher  or  school-officers. 

4.  Injury  to  person, — The  same  principle  should 
govern  the  administration  of  the  punishment  here 
as  in  the  cases  of  ^'injury  to  person"  already  men- 
tioned. If  pupils  commit  such  injuries  during  play- 
time, confinement  at  that  time,  in  addition  to  the 
other  punishments  suggested,  will  probably  cure  the 
evil. 

Punishments  for  Offences  against  Society. 

I  have  named  as  offences  against  society — (1)  Dis- 
turbance of  the  peace;  (2)  Injury  to  property,  or 
trespass  upon  it;  (3)  Uncivil  treatment  or  injury  to 
persons.  The  punishments  for  all  these  classes  of 
offences  may  be  considered  together. 

School-children   may,  during  play-time,  disturb 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  277 

the  peace  of  the  neighborhood  bj  loud  noises  or 
rough  games;  they  may  injure  fruit-trees,  tear 
down  fences,  or  frighten  horses  or  cattle ;  they  may 
throw  stones  or  snow-balls  at  passers-by,  or  other- 
wise treat  them  uncivilly  or  do  them  injury.  In  all 
such  cases,  they  should  be  made  to  repair,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  damage  they  may  have  done,  ask  par- 
don of  the  persons  they  may  have  injured,  and 
undergo  such  confinement  during  play-time  as  the 
teacher  may  deem  proper  under  the  circumstances. 

These  ofi:ences,  too,  may  be  committed  by  pupils 
in  coming  to  and  going  from  school ;  and  then  the 
teacher,  in  connection  with  the  parent  or  guardian, 
the  duty  in  this  case  devolving  upon  both,  should  re- 
quire the  same  kind  of  restitution  for  damage  done 
to  property  or  disrespect  shown  to  persons  as  when 
such  ofifences  are  committed  near  the  school  during 
play-time.  If  the  ofifending  pupils  be  detained  some 
time  after  school,  and  compelled  to  go  home  alone, 
the  punishment  will  generally  be  effective. 

The  most  grave  cases  of  disturbance  of  the  peace 
of  society,  or  injury  of  the  property  or  persons  of 
citizens,  on  the  part  of  students,  are  apt  to  be  com- 
mitted by  those  who  board  away  from  home.  Stu- 
dents, not  so  frequently  in  this  country  as  in  Europe, 
escaping  the  vigilance  of  teachers,  sometimes  engage 
in  bacchanal  revels,  in  riots,  in  destroying  the  pro- 
perty and  injuring  the  persons  of  those  against  whom 
they  entertain  some  prejudice  or  hold  some  ill  will. 
If  reproof  avail  nothing  against  such  practices,  the 
authorities  of  a  school  must  either  suspend  or  expel 
the  offenders.  Their  proper  punishment,  however, 
belongs  to  the  state. 


278      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


Punishments  for  Offences  against  God. 

1.  Disregard  of  the  religious  observances  of  the  school, 
— It  is  not  uncommon  for  pupils  to  be  inattentive 
during  prayer  or  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in 
school;  and  they  sometimes  prevent  others  from 
paying  attention.  A  remedy  I  have  never  known 
to  fail  in  such  cases,  is  to  place  the  offender  where 
he  cannot  easily  disturb  others,  and  where  inatten- 
tion on  his  part  can  be  readily  observed  by  the 
teacher.  A  special  seat  can  be  provided  for  the 
purpose. 

If  the  disregard  of  such  observances  be  persisted 
in,  and  come  to  be  an  open  violation  of  the  teacher's 
commands,  the  offence  must  be  treated  in  the  same 
way  as  any  other  act  of  disobedience. 

2.  Creating  disrespect  for  sacred  things, — Prayer 
may  be  ridiculed  in  school,  the  Bible  may  be  con- 
demned, and  the  conduct  of  good  men  may  be  un- 
justly criticized.  Boys  in  their  teens  assume  to 
doubt  the  truths  of  religion  and  make  sport  of  re- 
ligious ceremonies.  All  this  is  bad  in  itself,  and 
bad  in  its  effect  upon  others. 

For  offences  of  this  kind,  reproof  may  first  be 
tried;  next,  the  confinement  of  the  offenders,  in 
order  that  the  influence  of  their  example  may  be 
felt  as  little  as  possible ;  and  afterwards,  if  reform- 
ation be  not  brought  about,  suspension  or  expulsion 
should  be  resorted  to.  The  rod  is  altogether  out  of 
place  as  a  punishment  for  offences  of  this  kind.  No 
one  was  ever  yet  whipped  into  respect  for  sacred 
things. 

8.  Immoral  speaking^  'profanity^  vulgarity, — If  the 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  .  27^ 

teacher  find  among  his  pupils  one  who  is  profane 
or  vulgar,  he  must  first  guard  the  rest  from  the  in- 
fluence of  his  example  by  compelling  him  to  sit 
and  play  by  himself.  K  necessary,  confinement 
should  be  resorted  to;  for  if  this  kind  of  punish- 
ment, accompanied  by  fitting  reproof,  answer  not  the 
desired  end,  no  personal  chastisement  will  do  it. 

4.  Immoral  conduct — All  immoral  conduct  is  an 
ofience  against  God;  and,  though  it  is  wrong  for 
other  reasons,  this  consideration  ought  never  to  be 
lost  sight  of  in  the  punishment  of  it.  Such  im- 
moral conduct  as  is  most  likely  to  be  committed  by 
pupils  at  school  has  already  been  designated,  and 
the  proper  course  for  the  teacher  to  follow  has  also 
been  indicated:  so  that  nothing  remains  to  be  said 
here,  except  that  in  all  wrong-doing  the  pupils 
should  be  impressed  with  the  truth  that  they  are 
offending  against  God  as  well  as  against  them- 
selves and  their  fellows.  God  will  punish  in  His 
own  way  offences  against  Himself;  but  no  teacher 
should  suffer  a  pupil  to  laugh  during  a  prayer,  to 
scoflF  at  a  religious  ceremony,  to  utter  oaths  or  blas- 
phemies, to  act  wickedly,  without  making  him  feel, 
by  warnings  and  by  punishments,  that  he  has  not 
only  violated  the  regulations  of  the  school,  but 
committed  a  sin  in  the  sight  of  God. 

2d.  The  pardon  of  those  who  repent. — The  subject 
now  under  discussion  would  be  left  incomplete  if 
nothing  was  to  be  said  in  respect  to  the  pardon 
of  those  pupils  who  do  wrong,  but  repent  of  their 
misconduct. 

Into  all  forms  of  government  which  relate  to 
human  beings,  there  is  incorporated  some  provision 


280      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

for  pardoning,  under  certain  circumstances,  persons 
who  have  by  their  misconduct  incurred  the  penal- 
ties of  violated  law.  This  is  true  in  all  legitimate 
state  governments;  the  head  of  every  family  has 
felt  its  necessity;  and  God  Himself  has  sanctioned 
it  in  the  grand  scheme  through  which  He  offers  sal- 
vation to  a  fallen  world.  Indeed,  the  same  prin- 
ciple is  recognized  every  day  in  social  life.  Men 
constantly  do  wrong  to  their  fellow-men,  and  ask 
and  receive  pardon  for  their  wrong-doing.  All 
men  are  conscious  of  the  necessity  of  receiving 
pardon  from  persons  whom  they  have  wronged, 
and  from  God  whom  they  have  offended.  The 
principle  of  pardon  must  be  allowed  to  operate 
in  the  government  of  the  school.  There  is  even 
more  necessity  for  the  exercise  of  the  pardoning 
power  in  the  school  than  in  the  state ;  for  children 
are  more  apt  to  do  wrong  thoughtlessly  than  men. 

Can  a  teacher  grant  pardon  to  an  erring  pupil? 
If  the  State-Executive  can  do  so  to  a  guilty  subject, 
or  a  parent  to  an  offending  child,  the  same  right 
undoubtedly  is  legally  vested  in  the  teacher.  He  is 
a  sovereign  in  his  own  sphere,  and  can  punish  or 
pardon,  being  always  responsible  for  the  abuse  of 
his  powers.  Still,  it  is  evident  that  the  too  fre- 
quent or  inconsiderate  exercise  of  the  pardoning 
power  in  school,  as  elsewhere,  has  a  tendency  to 
weaken  authority.  A  teacher  must  be  just  as  well 
as  kind, — must  punish  as  well  as  pardon.  The 
pardoning  power  in  school  must,  therefore,  be  exer- 
cised under  certain  conditions,  the  most  important 
of  which  I  name,  as  follows : — 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  281 

1st.  That  the  guilty  jparty  give  evidence  of  sincerity  in 
his  repentance, 

2d.  That  he  make  good  the  damage  to  all  property  he 
has  injured  or  destroyed. 

3d.  Thai  he  apologize  to  all  persons  whom  he  has 
wronged. 

4th.  That  he  ask  the  forgiveness  of  God  when  he  has 
offended  Him. 

The  guilty  party  must  give  evidence  of  sincerity 
in  his  repentance  before  he  can  receive  pardon.  If 
a  pupil  commit  a  fault,  and  exhibit  no  signs  of 
regret  or  sorrow  for  it,  he  must  incur  the  full  pen- 
alty attached  to  the  violation  of  the  law  he  has 
broken.  Besides,  the  teacher  must  satisfy  himself 
that  the  repentance  manifested  is  not  feigned. 
Pupils  are  sometimes  base  enough^to  profess  great 
sorrow,  which  they  do  not  feel,  for  faults,  for  the 
purpose  of  moving  the  sympathy  of  teachers  and  se- 
curing their  pardon.  If  in  such  cases  it  be  granted 
to  one,  others  will  make  the  same  attempt,  disci- 
pline will  be  destroyed  in  the  school,  and  many  of 
the  pupils  will  come  to  be  hypocrites.  Let  the 
teacher  be  cautious,  therefore,  in  pardoning  the 
guilty.  He  has  his  pupils  with  him  all  the  time, 
and,  if  he  deem  it  proper,  he  can  readily  suspend 
the  punishment  of  an  offender  until  his  future  life 
prove  or  disprove  his  sincerity.  If,  for  example, 
a  pupil  quarrel  with  a  fellow-pupil  during  play- 
time, and  the  teacher  consider  that  he  should  be 
confined  for  the  oftence  and  deprived  of  play  for  a 
time,  upon  his  exhibiting  repentance  the  teacher 
may  suspend  the  penalty  until  he  have  an  oppor- 


282      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

tunity  of  noticing  whether  the  disposition  of  the 
offender  has  or  has  not  improved. 

The  guilty  party  must  make  good  the  damage  to 
all  property  he  has  injured  or  destroyed.  If  a  pupil 
break  a  window  or  a  chair,  no  matter  how  sorry  he 
may  be  for  it,  while  he  may  receive  free  pardon  for 
the  moral  part  of  the  offence,  he  must  be  required 
in  justice  to  repair  the  damage  done.  A  third 
party,  indeed,  may  be  allowed  to  do  it  for  him ;  but 
the  responsibility  of  doing  it  belongs  only  to  him 
who  committed  the  injury. 

The  guilty  party  must  apologize  to  all  persons 
whom  he  has  wronged.  If  a  pupil  has  been  wanting 
in  respect  towards,  or  has  injured  in  any  way,  a 
fellow-pupil,  his  teacher,  a  school-officer,  a  visitor 
at  the  school,  or  any  other  person,  his  repentance 
for  the  act  cannot  be  sincere  until  he  is  willing  to 
confess  his  fault  and  to  apologize  to  the  individual 
he  has  wronged,  l^o  pardon  should  be  granted  him 
until  this  apology  has  been  given  in  a  manner  that 
is  satisfactory  to  the  teacher. 

The  guilty  party  must  ask  the  forgiveness  of  God 
when  he  has  offended  Him.  All  bad  conduct  is  an 
offence  against  God;  but  some  kinds  of  conduct  of 
which  pupils  are  sometimes  guilty  have  been  pointed 
out  as  being  peculiarly  so.  A  pupil  who  has  com- 
mitted an  act  of  this  kind  must  be  required  by  the 
teacher  to  ask  God  for  forgiveness  before  he  can  be 
relieved  by  the  teacher  from  any  penalty  which  may 
have  been  attached  to  his  misconduct.  Let  the  pupil 
have  time  to  report  that  forgiveness,  and,  when  God 
forgives,  the  teacher  may  safely  do  so.  God  requires 
a  reformed  life,  however;  and  so  may  the  teacher. 


school-legislation.  283 

3.  Means  of  inducing  Pupils  to  discharge 
THEIR  Duties  of  their  own  Accord. — The  end  of 
all  government  of  the  young  is  to  make  them  capa- 
ble of  governing  themselves.  The  highest  impera- 
tives to  duty  must  come  from  within.  When  a 
pupil  acts  well  of  his  own  accord,  even  under 
unfavorable  circumstances,  the  object  of  school- 
government  has  been  attained  in  him.  It  is  well 
for  school-authorities  to  provide  means  for  prevent- 
ing disorder  in  the  school ;  but  it  is  better  to  strive 
to  train  pupils  to  be  so  firm  in  their  character,  so 
strict  in  their  integrity,  that  they  will  stand  erect, 
self-poised,  even  when  temptations  are  held  out  by 
false  gods  to  allure  them  to  wickedness.  It  is  well, 
also,  for  school-authorities  to  provide  means  of  cor- 
recting such  disorder  as  may  occur  in  the  school; 
but  it  is  better  to  strive  to  make  the  law  of  con- 
science of  such  binding  force  in  the  school  that 
punishments  and  pardons  will  become  unnecessary. 
Teachers  must  strive  to  attain  this  end, — to  induce 
their  pupils  to  discharge  their  duties  of  their  own 
accord ;  but  they  must  not  expect  to  reach  it.  This 
end — the  end  of  human  perfection — is  the  great  end 
of  the  discipline  of  life,  which  God  is  working  out 
in  the  lapse  of  centuries. 

To  discuss  this  subject  fully  would  be  to  open  up 
the  whole  field  of  Moral  Culture,  than  which  no 
other  educational  work  could  be  fraught  with  more 
interest;  but  it  is  not  included  within  the  scope  of 
this  volume.  A  mere  outline  of  the  subject  is  all 
that  will  in  this  place  be  ventured  upon. 

In  order  that  a  pupil  may  discharge  his  duties  of 
his  own  accord,  he  must — 

26 


284      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

1st.  Know  what  is  right. 

2cl,  Feel  the  claims  of  the  right. 

3d.  Will  to  do  the  right. 

The  teacher  must,  therefore,  direct  his  attention 
to  three  kinds  of  moral  training,  which,  if  the  ex- 
pressions be  allowable,  may  be  named  as  follows : — 
Moral  Knowing,  Moral  Feeling,  and  Moral 
Willing. 

Fupils  must  know  what  is  right. — It  is  obvious  that 
right  knowing  must  precede  right  feeling  and  right 
doing.  A  blind  man  may  desire  to  pursue  a  certain 
path,  yet  if  he  cannot  see  it  he  will  be  apt  to  take 
one  which  leads  in  a  different  direction. 

The  apprehension  of  the  right  is  intuitive;  but 
we  are  not  conscious  of  possessing  such  a  power 
until  we  notice  right  and  wrong  actions.  Our  idea 
of  right  is  not  formed  by  the  generalization  of  the 
consequences  of  the  acts  of  responsible  beings ;  but 
such  consequences  furnish  the  occasion  of  its  for- 
mation. In  expanding  this  idea  and  making  it  clear, 
the  teacher's  duty  consists  in  judiciously  multiplying  these 
occasions. 

Many  things  are  wrong  in  school  which  elsewhere 
might  be  right;  as,  for  example,  playing  in  school- 
hours,  talking,  going  some  distance  away  from  the 
school-house,  &c.  &c.  For  the  purpose  of  making 
pupils  acquainted  with  their  duty  in  these  respects, 
it  is  best  for  the  teacher  to  have  a  system  of  writ- 
ten school-rules,  or  school-regulations,  covering  this 
ground.  But,  in  order  that  pupils  may  fully  under- 
stand them,  the  reasons  upon  which  they  are  based, 
and  illustrations  of  the  consequences  of  disobeying 
them,  should  be  presented. 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  285 

It  is  not,  however,  with  regard  to  the  acts  of  pu- 
pils which  would  be  conventionally  wrong  that  the 
teacher  should  most  concern  himself,  but  with  re- 
gard to  such  as  are  absolutely  wrong, — wrong  in  the 
school  and  wrong  everywhere  else.  Pupils  must  be 
taught  to  know  good  from  evil.  How  ?  "When  old 
enough,  they  can  learn  it  from  the  Bible,  from  works 
on  Ethics,  from  Nature,  and  from  History:  lohen 
young,  they  can  learn  it  only  from  specific  examples. 
The  question,  whether  an  act  is  right  or  wrong, 
comes  up  many  times  every  day  in  the  school-room 
and  in  social  life.  Let  the  teacher  constantly  call 
upon  his  pupils  to  decide  such  questions.  The 
power  by  which  we  discriminate  right  from  wrong 
must  have  exercise.  The  teacher  must  furnish  it, 
— furnish  it  in  governing  his  school, — furnish  it  in 
hearing  recitations,— furnish  it  in  commenting  upon 
events  transpiring  in  the  world, — furnish  it  in  pri- 
vate conversation  with  his  pupils.  Pupils  must  he 
trained  to  form  the  habit  of  appealing  to  their  consciences 
to  guide  their  conduct. 

The  form  in  which  moral  questions  should  gene- 
rally be  presented  to  the  young  for  decision  is  the 
concrete,  as  examples.  Truths  presented  in  a  nar- 
rative form,  or  as  a  story,  secure  attention  and  reach 
the  heart.  A  child  cannot  discern  a  truth  deep  hid- 
den in  a  proverb  or  an  aphorism.  I  would  prefer 
,ising  a  work  on  History  to  a  work  on  Ethics  in  im- 
parting moral  instruction  to  the  young. 

Pupils  must  feel  the  claims  of  the  right, — Wrong 
acts  are  not  often  owing  to  ignorance  of  what  is 
right;  they  much  more  frequently  arise  from  the 
fact  that  men  do  not  feel  the  strength  of  the  impera- 


283      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

tives  lo  duty.  The  head  is  oftener  right  than  the 
heart.  In  moral  training,  the  feelings  which  impel 
men  to  the  performance  of  duty  must  be  aroused; 
— there  must  be  heart-culture.  This,  indeed,  is  the 
most  delicate  and  difficult  work  incident  to  the 
teacher's  profession. 

Moral  truth  must  be  so  presented  as  to  awaken 
moral  feeling.  To  the  mature  mind  nothing  can 
be  more  agreeable  than  a  great  principle  when  ex- 
pressed in  the  most  concise  form, — when  it  is  crystal- 
lized in  words.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  however, 
that  the  feeling  thus  arising  is  more  intellectual  than 
moral  in  its  nature.  The  moral  heart  throbs  only 
in  response  to  principles  expressed  in  life,  in  tangible 
realities.  It  is  the  philanthropist  visiting  prisoners 
in  their  cells,  the  patriot  dying  for  his  country,  the 
good  Samaritan  relieving  by  the  wayside  the  wants 
of  the  man  who  had  fallen  among  thieves,  the  ex- 
piring Saviour  praying  for  his  enemies  who  were 
cruelly  crucifying  him, — these  and  other  such  scenes 
as  these, — that  most  move  the  better  impulses  of  our 
hearts.  Whether  this  statement  is  correct  or  other- 
wise, I  am  certain  that  the  concrete  is  the  only 
effective  form  in  which  the  young  can  be  made  to 
feel  the  claims  of  the  right.  A  single  reading  of 
the  story  of  '' George  Washington  and  his  little 
Hatchet"  will  do  more  to  make  a  child  honest  and 
truthful  than  the  maxim  '^  Honesty  is  the  best 
policy  "  repeated  to  him  a  thousand  times.  Taking 
advantage  of  this  hint,  the  teacher  can  find  exam- 
ples of  the  good,  illustrations*  of  noble  principles, 
incidents,  anecdotes,  stories,  with  which  he  can  ac- 
quaint his  pupils  and  be  rewarded  by  seeing  them 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  287 

grow  in  virtue.  Moral  acts  may  be  presented  in 
pictures,  and  these,  when  properly  used,  can  be 
made  to  exert  a  very  powerful  influence  upon  the 
youthful  heart. 

There  are  times  when  the  heart  seems  hardened. 
There  are  times,  too,  when  it  seems  open  to  receive 
impressions  from  good  influences.  Let  the  teacher 
seize  the  fit  occasion  for  giving  his  moral  lessons. 
I  have  never  succeeded  well  in  giving  such  lessons 
when  I  appointed  a  fixed  time  and  place  for  doing 
it.  I  have  succeeded  well  when  I  was  all  alive  to 
the  great  interests  involved,  and  dropped,  now  and 
then,  into  the  open  hearts  of  my  pupils,  seeds  of 
truth  which  I  have  reason  to  know  have  grown  up 
producing  fruit,  some  thirty,  some  sixty,  and  some 
an  hundred  fold.  The  human  heart  is  a  fortress 
that  can  be  taken  better  by  indirect  than  by  direct 
approaches. 

The  influence  of  example  is  very  powerful  with 
the  young.  A  teacher  does  his  pupil  a  great  ser- 
vice when  he  induces  him  to  read  the  biography  of 
a  good  or  great  man.  Such  biographies  should  fill 
the  shelves  of  our  school-libraries.  Pupils  would  rise 
from  the  reading  of  them  with  more  admiration  for 
noble  deeds  and  a  greater  desire  to  do  them.  The 
teacher's  own  example,  if  a  worthy  one,  will  do 
much  to  make  his  pupils  love  virtue.  If  they  love 
him,  they  will  insensibly  make  him  a  model. 

Children  learn  to  love  to  do  what  they  have 
formed  the  habit  of  doing.  If  a  child  has  been 
taught  to  give  a  penny  to  deserving  persons  asking 
alms,  he  will  not  withhold  help  from  the  poor  and 
distressed  when  he  becomes  a  man.     One  who  is 

26* 


283      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

accustomed  in  youtli  to  always  ask  forgiveness  of 
those  he  may  have  wronged,  will  always  feel  like 
doing  it.  The  habit  of  prayer  formed  at  our 
mother's  knee  is  apt  to  ripen  into  a  love  for  such 
communion  with  God.  A  boy  who  has  been  made 
to  obey  parents  and  teacher  will  never  plot  rebel- 
lion in  the  state.  Solomon  ivas  wise  in  saying, 
*' Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and 
when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it."  Teach- 
ers have  abundant  opportunities  of  inculcating  vir- 
tuous habits. 

A  pure  character  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  A 
good  "man  is  the  noblest  work  of  God."  Let  the 
teacher  inspire  his  pupils  with  a  high  ideal  of 
human  perfection.  Let  him  spare  no  pains  to  make 
moral  excellence  attractive.  Let  him  ever  hold  up 
before  them  a  model  whose  perfections  they  may 
endeavor  to  realize  in  themselves.  A  high  aim  and 
a  noble  purpose  actuating  a  young  man,  he  can 
hardly  sacrifice  his  manhood  so  far  as  to  waste  his 
time  in  foolish  pleasures  or  ruin  body  and  soul  by 
degrading  vices. 

To  all  this  it  must  be  added  that  mere  moral  cul- 
ture does  not  make  Christians.  The  love  of  God 
must  be  shed  abroad  in  the  heart  before  men  are 
secure  from  the  temptations  of  life.  The  great 
truths  of  our  holy  religion  should  be  taught  in  all 
our  schools.  The  Scriptures  should  be  read,  hymns 
should  be  sung,  prayers  should  be  offered.  Let 
young  souls  come  in  contact  with  the  beautiful  and 
ennobling  truths  of  the  gospel,  and  they  will  be 
greatly  strengthened  for  the  conflicts  of  life  and 
better  prepared  for  the  enjoyments  of  heaven. 


SCHOOL-LEGISLATION.  289 

Pupils  must  will  to  do  right, — 'Wq  may  know  what 
is  right  and  feel  an  interest  in  doing  it,  and  still  fail 
in  the  resolution  to  begin  the  work.  How  many 
full-grown  men  there  are  who  lack  firmness,  deter- 
mination, executive  power,  will!  Any  moral  cul- 
ture is  incomplete  that  does  not  give  this  kind  of 
strength  to  character. 

Pupils  should  be  accustomed  to  do  what  they 
undertake.  The  teacher  should  carefully  measure 
their  capacity  and  induce  them  to  work  up  to  it. 
There  is  much  in  trying,  and,  if  we  fail  once,  in  try- 
ing and  trying  again.  If  a  teacher  allow  his  pupils 
to  give  up  their  tasks  because  they  cost  some  labor, 
they  will  soon  be  unwilling  to  do  any  thing.  On  the 
contrary,  he  should  spare  no  pains  to  inculcate  habits 
of  perseverance, — no  pains  to  teach  them  to  have 
confidence  in  their  own  powers.  Thus  in  general 
must  what  we  call  character  be  formed.  Specifically, 
the  young  must  be  trained  to  will  to  do  right.  This 
kind  of  training  requires  a  careful  hand;  for  ten 
thousand  foes  watch  to  destroy  the  first  buddings 
that  a  tender  soul  sends  up  to  the  light.  As  the 
world  stands,  there  is  no  harder  task  than  that  of 
forsaking  sin  and  death  and  seeking  purity  and  life. 
For  the  purpose  of  aiding  them  most  eff'ectually  in 
willing  right,  the  teacher  must  come  close  to  his 
pupils;  he  must  prove  himself  their  friend;  he  must 
sympathize  with  them;  a  common  bond  of  aff'ection 
must  link  them  together.  Thus  allied  by  sympathy 
to  his  pupils,  the  teacher  can  prompt  good  resolves, 
he  can  foster  them,  and,  Mentor-like,  he  can  proff'er 
proper  help  while  their  strength  is  tested  by  the 
storms  of  life.     Every  step  taken  in  the  path  of 


290      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

virtue  must  be  fought  for.  Enemies  await  the  ap- 
proach of  travellers  in  it,  and  attack  them  on  the 
right  hand  and  on  the  left,  in  front  and  rear.  If  one 
but  the  brave  can  conquer;  but  the  victory  is  glorious. 
Let  teachers  ever  keep  in  view  this  great  battle 
which  all  must  fight,  feebly  or  fearlessly,  and  nerve 
their  pupils  to  triumph  in  it. 

ISTothing  is  better  calculated  to  inspire  courage 
than  examples  of  it.  These  examples  may  be  found 
in  both  profane  and  sacred  history.  Amidst  many 
moral  cowards,  the  world  presents  some  moral 
heroes.  The  young  will  eagerly  read  or  listen  to 
accounts  of  these,  and  grow  like  them. 

Both  parents  and  teachers  sometimes  err  in  their 
treatment  of  children  who  are  called  stubborn.  As 
a  general  thing,  it  is  most  unwise  to  punish  them 
for  the  purpose  of  "breaking  their  wills,*'  as  it  is 
called.  It  is  better  to  make  them  feel  the  natural 
effects  of  their  stubbornness,  to  divert  them  from 
their  purpose,  or  to  conquer  them  ivith  patience.  Every 
parent  who  has  a  child  with  a  strong  will  should  be 
thankful  for  it;  for  the  world  is  now  full  of  tame, 
weak,  irresolute,  cowardly  human  beings,  and  their 
further  increase  is  not  at  all  desirable.  A  strong 
will  in  a  child  may  put  parents  and  teachers  who  do 
not  know  how  to  control  it  to  some  inconvenience; 
but  I  look  upon  it  as  a  nobler  gift  than  the  gift  of 
genius.  The  world  would  stand  still  but  for  men  of 
strong  will;  and  the  highest  virtue  is  unattainable 
without  it. 

IV.  School- Administration. — Many  things  have 
already  been  discussed  that  would  properly  come 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION.  291 

under  the  head  of  school-administration,  were  this 
subject  to  be  treated  of  by  itself.  All  that  remains 
to  be  done  now  may  be  stated  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Detection  of  Offenders. 

2.  The  Selection  of  the  Punishment  for  Of- 
fenders. 

3.  The  Manner  of  Inflicting  Punishment  upon 
Offenders. 

1.  The  Detection  of  Offenders. — The  detection 
of  offenders  in  school  is  often  a  delicate  and  difficult 
duty.  The  difficulty  is  not  so  great  in  schools  for 
young  pupils,  or  in  those  where  the  teacher  has  the 
pupils  during  school-hours  under  his  eye  in  school- 
room or  on  play-ground,  and  whose  time  out  of 
school-hours  is  spent  under  the  control  of  parents  or 
guardians,  as  it  is  in  those  differently  situated.  Young 
pupils  are  more  ready  to  confess  their  own  faults, 
are  less  skilful  in  concealing  them,  and  talk  much 
more  freely  about  the  faults  of  others,  than  those 
who  are  older.  When  a  teacher  is  with  his  pupils 
all  the  time,  he  will  be  likely  to  see  by  whom  wrong 
acts  are  done;  or,  if  not,  he  is  in  much  more  favor- 
able circumstances  for  finding  out  the  offender  than 
when  the  offence  is  committed  in  secret  and  plans 
contrived  to  prevent  detection.  The  position  of  a 
teacher  is  far  from  enviable  when  he  feels  that  his 
authority  has  been  disregarded,  the  interests  of  his 
school  jeopardized,  and  yet  that  he  is  unable  to 
detect  the  offender.  There  is  an  aversion  among 
students  in  higher  institutions  of  learning  against 
informing  on  a  fellow-student,  however  grave  his 


292  THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

offence  may  be ;  and  this  increases  the  difficulty  the 
teacher  experiences  in  tracing  mischief  back  to  its 
author.  If,  however,  in  any  circumstances,  misde- 
meanors occur  in  school  which  are  calculated  to 
impair  his  authority  among  good  pupils  and  dis- 
grace the  school,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty,  if  possible, 
to  detect  and  punish  the  offenders.  The  duty  is 
often  unpleasant,  and  requires  much  time  in  its  per- 
formance ;  but  a  school  without  order  is  like  a  ship 
in  a  storm  without  a  helm.  When  a  nation  loses 
its  power  to  detect  and  punish  crime,  it  is  a  sure 
sign  of  its  downfall ;  when  a  similar  want  is  felt  in 
school,  all  school-government  will  be  a  failure. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  say  any  thing  of  those 
offences  of  which  the  teacher  is  an  eye-witness,  or 
of  those — a  numerous  class — which  it  is  best  for  him 
to  allow  to  pass  in  silence ;  and  we  proceed  to  con- 
sider the  remaining  class  of  offences,  with  respect 
to  which  the  good  of  the  school  demands  that  those 
who  commit  them  should  be  detected  and  punished. 

Suppose  an  offence  committed  in  school,  and  the 
offender  unknown:  what  should  be  the  teacher's 
course  ? 

1st.  He  may  state  the  facts  to  the  whole  school, 
say  that  the  matter  would  be  investigated,  and 
request  the  guilty  parties  to  make  a  private  con- 
fession of  it.  He  may  even  name  a  time  when  they 
can  meet  him  for  that  purpose.  If  the  teacher 
enjoy  the  respect  of  the  pupils  who  committed  the 
offence,  if  they  have  reason  to  think  that  he  will 
ti*eat  them  justly  and  kindly,  and  if  they  have  been 
taught  that  self-confession  is  honorable  as  well  as 
profitable,  they  will  be  likely  to  call  upon  the  teachei 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION.  293 

and  make  known  their  connection  with  the  fault. 
Especially  will  this  be  the  case  if  the  fault  occurred 
by  accident  or  without  any  mal-intent.  The  success 
of  such  a  method  of  detecting  offences  depends, 
however,  almost  wholly  upon  the  manner  of  the 
teacher  in  asking  for  the  self-confession,  and  the 
confidence  reposed  in  him  by  his  pupils.  A  pupil 
who  under  such  circumstances  freely  confesses  his 
fault,  and  shows  that  he  is  sorry  for  it,  should  not 
be  severely  punished.  The  upbraidings  of  his  own 
conscience  are  already  punishing  him ;  and  the 
teacher  may  generally  with  safety  grant  him  a  con- 
ditional pardon. 

2d.  If  the  preceding  method  fail,  the  teacher  may 
quietly  gather  up  such  facts  as  he  can  learn  of  the 
circumstances  connected  with  the  offence.  He,  in 
all  probability,  already  knows  that  certain  of  his 
pupils  would  not  commit  such  an  offence;  he  will 
find  that  others  were  absent;  still  others  could  not 
have  taken  part  in  it,  from  various  circumstances; 
and  some  will  volunteer  such  information  as  will 
clear  themselves,  and  possibly  may  be  led  to  indi- 
cate at  least  who  are  innocent.  In  this  way,  the 
circle  among  whom  the  offenders  must  be  found  is 
very  much  narrowed,  and  circumstances  more  or 
less  strong  will  point  to  the  guilty  parties.  A  pri- 
vate interview  may  now  be  had  with  these,  at  which 
the  suspicious  circumstances  should  be  plainly  and 
directly  stated,  and  the  question  asked  of  each  how 
he  can  explain  these  circumstances,  and  whether  he 
is  guilty  of  the  fault  of  which  they  seem  to  indicate 
his  guilt.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  if  the  teacher 
proceed  judiciously,  a  confession  will  now  be  made; 


294      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

and  the  punisliment  can  be  adjusted  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  offence.  I  ought  not  to  omit  the 
remark  that  a  teacher  should  be  very  careful  in 
accusing  a  pupil  even  when  circumstances  seem  to 
point  clearly  to  him  as  the  guilty  party;  for  I  have 
known  very  great  harm  to  result  from  so  doing. 
The  principle  is  a  good  one,  in  school  as  well  as  in 
courts  of  justice,  to  consider  all  persons  innocent 
until  proven  guilty;  but  no  pupil  can  object  to 
being  allowed  the  privilege  of  explaining  circum- 
stances which  seem  to  indicate  his  connection  with 
bad  conduct;  or,  if  he  does,  the  inference  is  pro- 
bably correct  that  he  is  either  himself  guilty  or  de- 
sires to  conceal  the  guilt  of  another. 

3d.  K  the  teacher  fail  to  find  circumstances  which 
point  to  particular  individuals  as  the  guilty  parties, 
he  may  require  each  pupil,  in  the  presence  of  all  the 
rest,  to  answer  questions  as  to  whether  he  was  either 
a  principal  or  an  accessory  in  the  misconduct.  The 
justification  for  such  a  course  of  procedure  is  that  the 
interest  of  the  school  demands  the  detection  of  the 
offender,  and  that,  as  long  as  no  one  in  particular 
can  be  accused  of  the  fault,  its  disgrace  attaches 
itself  to  all.  In  such  circumstances,  while  many 
well-meaning  pupils  might  be  unwilling  to  implicate 
others,  they  would  not  hesitate  to  exculpate  them- 
selves ;  and  none  but  the  most  hardened  would  dare 
to  utter  a  falsehood  in  the  presence  of  the  teacher, 
and  of  school-fellows  who  knew  it  to  be  a  falsehood. 
This  method  of  detecting  an  offence  should  not  be 
resorted  to  unless  the  offence  be  a  grave  one,  and 
unless  the  teacher  be  sure  he  will  be  sustained  by  tlie 
public  sentiment  of  the  school.     He  must  manage 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION.  295 

the  matter  very  carefully,  too,  if  he  expects  the 
whole  influence  to  be  beneficial  upon  his  pupils. 
All  he  does  should  be  done  calmly  and  deliberately. 
Jtiroise,  hurry,  and  fuss  in  such  cases  always  do  harm. 
4th.  It  may  happen  that  all  the  pupils  in  a  school 
will  deny  being  concerned  in  the  misconduct  which 
is  charged  against  them.  The  guilty  may  be  base 
enough  to  utter  a  falsehood,  either  in  public  or  in 
private.  They  and  their  friends  may  refuse  to  answ^er 
at  all;  they  may  give  a  wrong  answer  with  some 
mental  reservation  or  equivocation  5  or  they  may 
deny  the  right  of  the  teacher  to  make  them  convict 
themselves,  as  they  may  hold  he  is  endeavoring  to 
do  when  questioning  them  as  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph.  The  creed  that  some  students 
hold  is  as  follows :  never  to  confess  their  own  guilt, 
and  never  to  inform  teachers  with  respect  to  the 
guilt  of  others.  Such  a  creed  is  immoral  in  itself; 
and  in  whatever  institution  of  learning  it  is  gene- 
rally practised  by  the  students,  it  will  render  good 
government  impossible.  Students,  indeed,  some- 
times plan  the  means  of  escaping  detection  at  the 
same  time  they  concoct  the  mischief.  In  circum- 
stances like  these,  what  must  a  teacher  do?  His 
resort  must  be  to  students  who  value  the  interests 
of  the  school  and  who  do  not  sympathize  with  the 
plans  and  plots  of  their  reckless  school-fellows. 
Unfortunate  the  school  where  such  cannot  be  found ! 
In  ordinary  circumstances,  one  student  ought  not  to 
be  asked  to  inform  upon  another ;  but  in  cases  of 
malicious  mischief,  wanton  destruction  of  property, 
theft,  conspiracy  against  the  school-authorities,  and 
off'ences  equally  grave,  it  is  the  duty  of  every  well- 

27 


296      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

meaning  student  who  cares  for  the  reputation  of  his 
school  or  teachers,  who  wishes  well  to  his  fellow- 
students,  to  come  forward,  either  publicly  or  pri- 
vately, and  tell  all  he  knows  about  the  matter. 
Seeing  the  position  of  affairs,  volunteers  will  often 
bring  information  that  will  lead  to  the  detection  of 
the  offenders ;  or,  if  not,  a  judicious  teacher  can 
quietly  obtain  it. 

5th.  It  might  happen  that  all  the  circumstances  at- 
tending the  committing  of  a  misdemeanor  at  school 
would  be  unknown  to  all  except  the  guilty  parties, 
and  that  they  would  refuse  to  reveal  any  thing  con- 
cerning it.  In  such  a  case,  the  teacher  can  do  no- 
thing except  to  use  increased  vigilance.  Special 
guards  may  be  appointed,  while  all  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  the  school  should  go  on  as  if  nothing  had 
happened.  Those  who  deliberately  do  mischief 
once,  if  not  detected,  will  most  likely  soon  repeat 
the  offence  under  circumstances  which  will  render 
their  detection  more  easy.  Besides,  to-day,  as  with 
Cain,  a  mark  is  set  upon  a  guilty  person  which  a 
keen  eye  can  detect.  The  teacher  must  be  watch- 
ful. If  '*  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  liberty" 
in  a  state,  it  is  the  price  of  order  in  a  school. 

It  is  proper  to  notice,  in  concluding  this  topic,  a 
system  of  self-confession  which  is  practised  in  some 
schools,  and  is  called  the  Self-Reporting  System.  A 
few  illustrations  will  show  how  it  operates.  ITear 
the  close  of  the  school-day,  some  teachers  call  upon 
all  their  pupils  who  have  in  any  way  violated  the 
school-rules  to  raise  their  hands :  if  there  has  been 
one  violation,  one  finger  may  be  held  up;  if  two, 
two;  and  so  on.     The  teachers,  then,  noticing  the 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATIOlSr.  297 

hands,  make  such  inquiries  as  they  deem  necessary, 
and  assign  to  each  culprit  the  punishment  he  seems 
to  deserve.  Other  teachers  reduce  the  offences  of 
the  school  to  a  few  classes,  have  them  printed  on 
properly  arranged  cards,  which  are  given  to  the 
pupils  to  be  filled  out,  at  the  end  of  a  week  or  some 
other  stated  time,  with  a  record  of  the  kind  and 
number  of  offences  each  has  committed,  and  then 
returned  to  the  teachers. 

With  all  due  respect  to  some  excellent  teachers 
who  adopt  the  Self-Reporting  System,  I  must  be 
allowed  to  express  my  doubts  both  as  to  its  policy 
and  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  based.  I  do  not 
object  to  a  pupiFs  confessing  his  fault  to  his  teacher, 
— the  furthest  from  it  possible ;  but  a  formal,  forced, 
and  public  manner  of  doing  it  must  deprive  the 
confession  of  much  of  its  good  effect.  Pupils  must 
experience  much  difficulty  in  selecting  those  of  their 
shortcomings  which  ought  to  be  reported,  and  in 
representing  the  exact  extent  of  their  offending,  even 
when  disposed  to  report  correctly;  and  it  must  be 
acknowledged  on  all  hands  that  there  would  be 
such  a  strong  temptation  to  report  incorrectly  that 
many  could  not  resist  it.  Besides,  in  many  cases 
the  teacher  would  have  to  make  inquiries  back  of 
the  reports :  pupils  are  not  always  willing  to  convict 
themselves ;  and,  when  compelled  to  punish  those 
pupils  for  omissions  in  their  reports,  he  will  find 
his  success  less  than  if  he  had  punished  them 
directly  for  the  offence  itself.  In  a  few  schools, 
where  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  pupils  are  actuated  by 
high  moral  principles,  the  system  may  work  well ; 
but  in  the  majority  of  our  schools  it  would  produce 


298      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

such  complications  in  their  government  as  must 
cause  it  to  end  in  failure. 

2.  The  Selection  of  the  Punishment  for  Of- 
fenders.— The  detection  of  an  offence  in  the  work 
of  administrating  the  affairs  of*  the  school  must  be 
followed  by  the  punishment  of  the  offender.  The 
kinds  of  punishment  open  to  the  teacher,  and  the 
principle  by  which  he  should  be  guided  in  selecting 
them,  have  already  been  treated  of;  and  it  is  only 
necessary  to  notice  here  some  considerations  which 
the  teacher  must  take  into  account  in  determining 
the  degree  of  the  punishment. 

The  degree  of  the  punishment  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  offence.  If  the  offence  be  a  gravQ 
one,  greatly  destructive  of  good  order,  it  should  be 
punished  with  more  severity  than  an  offence  of 
milder  form. 

The  degree  of  punishment  depends  upon  the 
character  and  disposition  of  the  offender.  No  wise 
teacher  will  treat  all  children  in  the  same  manner. 
The  general  principles  of  school-government  must 
be  modified  in  their  application  to  individuals. 
Practitioners  in  Law  and  Medicine  recognize  like 
modifications  in  applying  the  principles  of  these 
sciences.  It  would  be  wrong  to  punish  in  precisely 
the  same  way  pupils  who  have  refined  feelings,  and 
those  who  are  insensible  to  beauty  or  propriety; 
pupils  who  have  a  high  sense  of  honor,  and  those 
who  scarcely  know  when  they  insult  another  or  are 
insulted  themselves ;  pupils  who  can  hardly  bear  a 
word  of  reproach,  and  those  whose  hearts  are  hard- 
ened into  stone.  The  Proverb  says,  ^'A  reproof 
entereth  more  into  a  wise  man  than  a  hundred 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION.  299 

stripes  into  a  fool."  Girls,  too,  as  a  general  thing, 
need  less  severe  punishments  than  boys. 

The  degree  of  punishment  depends  upon  the 
motive  which  prompted  the  misdemeanor.  It  is 
probably  true  that  teachers  often  attribute  worse 
motives  to  their  pupils  than  those  which  actuated 
them.  They  judge  them  by  their  own  standard  of 
right  and  wrong,  when  they  should  be  judged  by  one 
quite  different.  The  young  are  thoughtless,  and, 
in  consequence,  often  do  things  which  are  wrong. 
They  are  fond  of  fun,  and  frequently  engage  in 
tricks,  with  that  end  in  view,  which  have  bad  results. 
The  teacher  must  carefully  distinguish  such  motives 
from  those  which  are  really  bad,  and  administer  his 
punishments  accordingly.  Whenever  a  teacher  is 
compelled  to  hesitate  in  deciding  whether  an  act 
was  done  from  a  bad  motive  or  not,  he  should  allow 
the  erring  pupil  the  benefit  of  his  doubt. 

The  degree  of  punishment  depends  upon  the 
circumstances  in  which  the  offence  was  committed. 
The  teacher  must  discriminate  between  a  wrong 
act  done  by  accident,  and  one  done  purposely ;  be- 
tween one  committed  by  an  unsuspicious,  credulous 
boy,  and  one  committed  by  a  bold,  cunning  fellow 
who  plots  mischief  which  he  persuades  others  to 
engage  in ;  between  one  done  under  provocation  or 
while  angry,  and  one  coolly  meditated  and  delibe- 
rately executed. 

The  degree  of  punishment  depends  upon  the 
difficulty  necessarily  attending  the  detection  of  the 
offence.  The  state  acts  upon  this  principle;  and  so 
must  the  school.  A  pupil  who  commits  a  misde- 
meanor openly  is  not  likely  to  be  as  bad  as  one  who 

27^ 


800  THE   GOVERNMENT    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

does  it  secretly;  and  one  who  deliberately  plots  mis- 
chief and  contrives  plans  to  conceal  it  is  the  worst 
of  all.  Some  wrong  acts,  too,  in  their  nature  are 
less  easily  discovered  than  others.  It  is  evident 
that  punishments  must  be  adjusted  with  reference 
to  these  facts. 

The  degree  of  punishment  depends  upon  the 
number  of  times  an  offence  may  have  been  re- 
peated. For  a  first  offence  a  pupil  ought  not  to  be 
punished  as  severely  as  for  a  second  or  third. 

Such  are  the  most  important  principles  in  the 
light  of  which  school-punishments  are  to  be  ad- 
justed. It  would  be  unwise  to  attempt  more  than 
this  statement  of  principles.  The  judges  of  our 
courts  have  extensive  discretionary  powers  with 
respect  to  the  infliction  of  punishment  upon  those 
who  violate  the  laws  of  the  state ;  and  these  powers 
are  necessary,  because  the  degree  in  which  a  crimi- 
nal act  is  wrong  can  only  be  determined  from  a  full 
knowledge  of  all  the  circumstances  which  were 
connected  with  its  commission.  Teachers,  too,  must 
have  discretionary  powers.  While  they  should  care- 
fully study  the  kind  of  punishment  which  naturally 
follows  school-offences,  and  carefully  estimate  the 
weight  of  all  the  considerations  upon  which  the 
degree  of  punishment  in  school  depends,  no  theory 
should  bind  them  to  a  fixed  mode  of  procedure. 
Great  general  principles  must  guide  the  teacher  in 
all  his  practice;  but  these  principles  do  not  pre- 
suppose uniformity  in  their  application. 

3.  The  Manner  of  inflicting  Punishment  upon 
Offenders.- — A  list  of  school-punishments  was  given 
on  a  previous  page;  and  with  respect  to  the  mannei 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION.  301 

of  inflicting  some  of  these,  notliing  need  be  said,  as 
they  indicate  in  themselves  what  it  ought  to  be.  A 
few  remarks  will  be  made  respecting  the  manner 
of  inflicting  three  of  them, — viz. :  reproof,  confine- 
ment, and  personal  chastisement. 

Reproof  is  the  most  common  mode  of  school- 
punishment,  and,  if  well  administered,  it  is  generally 
sufiicient  to  secure  good  order.  An  erring  pupil 
should  be  reproved  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  and 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  him  feel  that  the  reproof 
is  intended  for  his  good. 

Reproof  may  be  administered  directly  or  indi- 
rectly. When  the  ofifenders  are  known,  it  is  gene- 
rally best  to  speak  to  them  directly.  Pupils  are  not 
very  quick  to  apply  to  their  own  conduct  general 
remarks  directed  to  the  whole  school.  The  manner 
of  the  prophet  Nathan,  in  his  rebuke  of  David, 
when  he  said,  ^'Thou  art  the  man,*'  is  the  best 
method  for  correcting  school-oflfences.  A  teacher 
should  never  shrink  from  the  duty  of  telling  any 
pupil  his  faults;  and  pointless  reproof  directed  to 
all  the  pupils,  when  particular  ones  are  meant,  is 
mostly  unproductive  of  good,  and  frequently  dictated 
by  a  cowardly  spirit.  There  are  times,  however, 
when  a  fault  has  been  committed  of  which  some  are* 
more  and  some  less  guilty,  and  other  participants  in 
it  are  guilty  to  an  extent  not  known,  or  when  the 
school  or  class  generally  has  fallen  into  some  habit 
that  is  leading  to  unpleasant  consequences,  at  which 
an  indirect  exposure  of  the  fault,  and  an  indirect  re- 
buke of  all  who  may  be  guilty  of  it,  would  be  good 
policy.  A  whole  school  may  sometimes  be  lifted  * 
up  at  once  to  a  higher  moral  position  by  having  its 


802      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

general  faults  or  shortcomings  judiciously  reproved, 
even  though  no  names  are  specially  referred  to. 

Reproof  may  be  administered  privately  or  pub- 
licly. In  a  large  majority  of  cases,  it  is  much  better 
to  reprove  a  pupil  in  private.  By  so  doing,  the 
teacher  will  avoid  the  expression  of  any  sympathy 
for  the  offender  on  the  part  of  his  schoolmates, 
he  will  put  it  out  of  their  power  to  accuse  him  of 
weakness  in  making  his  acknowledgments,  and  he 
will  enjoy  a  much  better  opportunity  of  leaving 
good  impressions  upon  his  mind  or  prompting  good 
resolves  in  his  heart.  A  teacher  can  come  much 
closer  to  a  pupil  when  he  speaks  to  him  in  private. 
The  communication  is  more  free  when  none  are 
present  to  listen  or  criticize.  But  there  are  offences 
which  ought  to  be  punished  publicly.  If  a  pupil 
publicly  disobey  a  teacher,  he  should  be  made  to 
submit  publicly.  Whenever  the  offence  is  of  such 
a  character  that  it  will  be  condemned  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  school,  no  harm  can  arise  from 
rebuking  publicly  the  person  who  committed  it. 
Offences  against  the  school  as  a  whole  should  gene- 
rally be  publicly  punished,  either  by  reproof  or 
otherwise. 

Confinement  is  a  much  more  natural,  and  would 
prove,  if  judiciously  used,  a  much  more  effectual, 
punishment  for  many  school-offences  than  personal 
chastisement. 

The  confinement  may  take  place  in  the  school- 
room. It  is  a  species  of  confinement  to  seat  a 
pupil  at  a  distance  from  others.  The  confinement 
becomes  quite  a  severe  punishment  when  a  pupil 
is  detained  in  the  school-room  after  school  has  been 


SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION.  303 

dismissed  or  during  intermissions.  A  long  deten- 
tion after  school  may  be  inconvenient  on  several 
accounts ;  and  in  place  of  it,  as  a  general  thing,  I 
would  recommend  detention  during  intermissions. 

The  confinement  may  take  place  in  a  separate 
room  connected  with  the  school-room;  and  this  is 
decidedly  preferable  for  such  a  purpose  to  the 
school-room  itself.  Of  course,  I  do  not  mean  a 
cell,  but  rather  a  pleasant  little  room  specially 
fitted  up  for  the  purpose.  A  closet,  or  dark  room, 
is  very  objectionable.  I  would  make  it  bear  some- 
what the  same  relation  to  the  school  that  a  prison 
does  to  society;  and  I  am  well  satisfied  that,  with 
such  a  room,  the  graver  offences  which  occur  in 
school  could  be  effectively  punished  without  resort 
to  the  rod. 

Personal  chastisement  is  considered  a  necessary 
punishment  in  school.  If  home  discipline  were 
what  it  should  be,  I  would  allow  that  it  could  be 
dispensed  with  altogether.  Some  forms  of  apply- 
ing this  kind  of  punishment  were  referred  to  on 
another  page,  under  the  name  of  Personal  Indigni- 
ties. I  speak  of  the  matter  here  for  the  purpose  of 
saying  again  that  I  disapprove  of  them  all.  If  a  pupil 
openly  disobey  a  teacher,  just  force  enough,  and  of 
a  kind  best  suited  to  the  purpose,  may  be  used  to 
secure  obedience;  but,  under  any  other  circum- 
stances, the  best  mode  of  administering  personal 
chastisement  is  with  the  rod.  The  Bible  seems  to 
approve  the  use  of  the  rod  as  an  instrument  for  in- 
flicting this  kind  of  punishment;  and  experience 
has  shown  that  the  Bible  is  right.  ITo  form  of 
treatment  can  be  worse  for  a  child  than  the  habit 


304      THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

of  slapping  his  hands,  boxing  his  ears,  pulling  his 
hair  or  ears,  twisting  his  nose,  &c.  &c.,  for  slight 
offences.  If  he  deserve  punishment,  and  personal 
chastisement  seem  best  suited  to  the  case,  let  him 
be  whipped  with  a  suitable  rod,  and  with  some  se- 
verity; for  an  offender  that  deserves  whipping  at 
all  deserves  to  be  well  whipped.  It  is  very  sel- 
dom, indeed,  that  I  would  whip  a  boy  before  the 
school.  I  doubt  whether  the  witnessing  of  such 
punishments  is  ever  beneficial  to  a  school.  When- 
ever practicable,  personal  chastisement  should  only 
be  inflicted  after  due  deliberation.  A  little  delay 
will  enable  the  teacher  to  administer  the  punish- 
ment with  more  effect.  If  angry,  it  will  allow  time 
for  his  anger  to  cool;  and  he  will  then  be  more 
likely  to  make  the  severity  of  the  punishment  pro- 
portionate to  the  criminality  of  the  offence.  A  few 
hours  of  reflection,  too,  will  enable  a  pupil  to  see 
an  act  of  wrong  in  a  very  different  light  from  that 
in  which  it  appeared  at  the  moment  of  its  commis- 
sion. Let  me  say  very  earnestly  to  all  teachers. 
Be  in  no  haste  to  inflict  punishments^  and  especially  cor^ 
poral  punishments. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  AUTHORITIES  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

In  treating  of  the  science  of  Political  Economy, 
the  discussion  is  not  considered  complete  unless  it 
includes  the  producer,  as  well  as  the  thing  pro- 
duced,— those  who  operate  upon  a  thing,  as  well  as 
the  thing  upon  which  the  operation  is  performed; 
80,  in  unfolding  the  subject  of  School  Economy, 
our  work  would  be  but  partly  done,  if  we  omitted 
to  say  any  thing  concerning  the  agents  who  devise, 
direct,  and  control  the  whole  machinery  of  schools, 
and  the  source  from  which  all  their  power  and  right 
to  do  so  are  derived. 

The  matter  which  it  seems  desirable  to  present 
can  be  most  conveniently  arranged  in  three  sec- 
tions, as  follows : — 

I.  The  Teacher. 

n.  The  General  School-Officers, 
m.  The  People  in  respect  to  Schools. 

I.  The  Teacher. — Whatever  the  topic  previously 
under  consideration,  the  teacher  has  been  ever  pre- 
sent in  our  mind.  When  speaking  of  the  Prepara- 
tion for  the  School,  the  teacher  was  the  principal 
agent  referred  to,  whose  duty  it  was  to  make  that 
preparation;   and,  when  treating  of  the  Organiza- 

305 


806  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

tion,  Employments,  and  Government  of  the  School, 
the  teacher  was  constantly  before  us, — if  not  in  all 
places  the  principal  figure  in  the  picture,  yet  always 
an  indispensable  accessory  to  its  proper  effect.  We 
will  now  put  him  altogether  in  the  foreground ;  and 
it  is  our  desire  to  paint  him  as  he  should  be, — a 
model  man. 

The  subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  order  of  the 
following  heads : — 

1.  The  Teacher's  Motives. 

2.  The  Teacher's  Qualifications. 

3.  The  Teacher's  Duties  to  his  Pupils. 

4.  The  Teacher's  Duties  to  his  Profession. 

5.  A  Teacher's  Life. 

1.  The  Teacher's  Motives. — God  has  intrusted 
to  our  care  no  duty  so  responsible  as  that  of  the 
culture  of  our  minds.  The  duties  of  the  farmer, 
the  mechanic,  the  merchant,  the  lawyer,  the  doctor, 
are  necessary  to  the  welfare  of  society,  but  all  of 
them  relate  in  practice  to  what  is  temporary  and 
perishable;  while  teaching,  in  its  broadest  sense, 
includes  that  preparation  which  must  be  made  by 
immortal  beings  to  enjoy  the  highest  happiness  be- 
yond the  grave.  If  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  so 
noble,  he  must  enter  upon  it  confident  of  his  ability 
to  discharge  well  its  responsible  duties,  and  with 
motives  the  purest  that  can  actuate  human  conduct. 
The  diverse  necessities  of  society  give  rise  to  many 
kinds  of  business.  Men  are  born  peculiarly  fitted 
for  each.  But  if  there  is  one  office  more  than 
others  divinely  appointed,  and  to  which  men  are 


THE   TEACHER.  807 

divinely  called,  it  is  that  of  teacher.  Men  with 
sensual  natures  and  mercenary  aims  ought  not  to 
be  found  anywhere,  but  everywhere  rather  than  in 
the  school-room,  where  character  is  in  its  formative 
state,  and  where  "every  chord  that  is  struck  in  a 
tender  mind  vibrates  at  the  throne  of  God.'* 

If  by  any  means  those  who  now  have  charge  of 
our  schools  could  be  summoned  to  state  the  objects 
they  have  in  view  or  the  motives  by  which  they 
are  actuated  in  teaching,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
many  of  them  would  fail  to  come  up  to  that  stand- 
ard of  duty  which  is  adopted  by  every  true  teacher. 
There  may  be  found,  attempting  to  teach  in- our 
schools,  young  persons  who  have  never  made  teach- 
ing a  study,  who  have  no  love  for  it,  but  who  teach 
merely  to  put  in  time  until  some  more  congenial 
employment  presents  itself,  or  until  they  accumu- 
late suiSicient  money  to  enable  them  to  engage  in  a 
different  kind  of  business.  There  may  be  found, 
attempting  to  teach,  in  our  schools  persons  who 
have  failed  in  other  avocations, — broken-down  doc- 
tors, lawyers,  and  clergymen,  bankrupt  merchants, 
farmers,  and  mechanics,  worn-out  clerks  and  editors : 
all  these  and  others  become  schoolmasters  from 
necessity,  or  because  they  can  conceal  more  effect- 
ually from  the  public  eye,  in  the  school-room  than 
elsewhere,  their  want  of  energy  or  skill.  There 
may  be  found,  attempting  to  teach,  in  our  schools 
persons  who  merely  go  through  a  routine  of  re- 
citing, whipping,  and  scolding,  most  irksome  to 
them;  who  are  careful  to  perform  no  duty  but 
what  they  must;  who  are  behind  time  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  school,  and  hurry  away  as  fast  as  possible 

28 


308  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

after  its  close ;  who  dislike  school  and  pupils,  and 
are  never  pleased  except  when  pay-day  comes,  and 
never  seem  interested  in  any  thing  connected  with 
their  schools  except  an  increase  of  salary,  shorter 
school-terms,  and  more  numerous  holidays.  Such 
classes  of  persons  as  these  still  disgrace  the  profes- 
sion of  teaching,  and  good  teachers  everywhere  are 
growing  impatient  with  the  slowness  of  the  process 
by  which  they  are  being  got  rid  of.  Speed  the  day 
when  better  men,  with  better  motives,  take  their 
place ! 

A  teacher  may  make  his  comfort  and  his  pecu- 
niary interests  an  object.  Since  teachers  are  gene- 
rally so  badly  remunerated  for  their  labor,  he  may 
be  even  urgent  in  his  claims  in  these  respects,  and 
incur  no  rightful  censure.  But,  still,  all  such  ob- 
jects should  be  subordinate  to  the  great  one  of 
doing  good  to  his  pupils,  and,  through  them,  to  the 
cause  of  humanity.  Selfish  as  the  world  is,  men 
can  be  found  who  would  a  thousand  times  rather 
labor  to  spread  the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel 
among  the  heathen  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  de- 
prived of  almost  all  the  ordinary  comforts  of  life, 
than  to  engage  in  many  kinds  of  business  which 
custom  sanctions,  live  in  a  palace,  and  enjoy  an  in- 
*come  of  ten  thousand  dollars  a  year.  Called  upon 
to  make  fewer  sacrifices  than  a  missionary,  the 
teacher  who  does  all  that  he  may  for  the  pupils  in 
one  of  our  Common  Schools  must  be  actuated  by 
the  missionary  spirit.  Life,  indeed,  has  other  and 
higher  ends  than  that  of  mere  animal  happiness ; 
and  it  is  possible  to  live  truly,  nobly,  without 
wealth,  unknown  to  fame,  unhonored  by  the  world, 


THE   TEACHER.  309 

but  witli  the  peaceful  consciousness  of  having  been 
faithful  to  men  and  to  God. 

The  grand  object  that  every  true  teacher  has  in 
view,  is  to  so  instruct  and  so  train  his  pupils  that 
they  may  become  a  blessing  to  the  world  and  to  be 
themselves  worthy  of  the  blessings  of  Heaven ;  and 
to  accomplish  this  good  for  humanity  is  the  great 
moving  motive  that  determines  his  choice  of  a  pro- 
fession, and  induces  him  to  labor  on  in  the  work 
which  he  has  begun. 

Men  are  true  to  themselves  when  they  use  all 
their  powers  in  the  right  way;  true  to  society, 
when  they  do  it  all  the  good  they  can, — when  they 
love  their  neighbors  as  themselves ;  true  to  God, 
when  they  love  Him  with  all  their  mind  and 
strength;  and  teaching,  where  it  aims  to  make 
men  true  to  themselves,  true  to  their  fellow-men, 
and  true  to  God,  is  noble,  and  the  teacher  who 
faithfully  performs  his  work,  must  be  ranked  among 
the  best  benefactors  of  his  race. 

2.  The  Teacher's  Qualifications. — In  addition 
to  much  that  has  already  been  said  indirectly  else- 
where, in  this  volume,  respecting  the  teacher's 
qualifications,  something  more  systematic  is  deemed 
important.  The  discussion  will  proceed  in  the  fol- 
lowing order  : — . 

1st.   The  Teacher's  physical  Qualifications. 
2d.   The  Teacher's  intellectual  Qualifications. 
3d.   The  Teacher's  moral  Qualifications. 
4th.  The  Teacher's  professional  Qualifications. 

The  Teacher's  physical  Qualifications. — The  position 
of  teacher  is  sometimes  sought  by  persons  with  weak 


810  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

and  sickly  constitutions.  This  is  a  mistake.  A 
teacher  should  have  good  health.  The  mental  labor 
required  in  a  school  cannot  be  performed  by  one 
whose  physical  system  is  not  strong  and  vigorous; 
and  that  kind  of  cheerful  spirit  so  essential  to  the 
well-working  of  a  school  is  not  often  possessed  by 
one  whose  nerves  are  racked  with  pain.  Persons 
in  ill  health,  therefore,  both  for  their  own  and  their 
pupil's  good,  should  seek  some  other  occupation 
than  teaching. 

Commencing  his  work  with  a  strong  constitution 
and  good  health,  the  teacher  should  try  to  preserve 
both  by  a  careful  attention  to  hygienic  laws. 

He  must  observe  the  law  in  reference  to  work. 
Hard  mental  labor  is  healthful ;  but  to  spend  eight 
hours  at  such  labor  every  day  in  the  school-room, 
and  as  many  more  out  of  the  school-room,  will,  if  long 
continued,  exhaust  the  energies  and  destroy  the 
health  of  any  one.  Periods  of  work  should  be  alter- 
nated with  periods  of  active  exercise  and  cheerful 
recreation. 

The  teacher  must  observe  the  law  in  reference  to 
exercise.  Such  is  the  intimate  connection  between 
the  body  and  the  mind  that  without  the  due  exer- 
cise of  the  former  the  latter  will  not  long  discharge 
well  its  functions.  The  teacher  may  join  in  a  game 
of  ball  or  cricket;  he  may  walk,  row,  drive,  skate, 
swim,  ride  on  horseback,  saw  wood,  work  in  a  garden, 
do  any  farm  or  mechanical  work  that  maybe  conve- 
nient ;  but  he  must  do  something.  Where  all  else  fails, 
he  should  resort  to  the  use  of  gymnastic  apparatus; 
but  exercising  in  this  way  by  oneself  is  not  very  in- 
teresting.    He  should  no  more  think  of  doing  with- 


THE   TEACHER.  811 

out  exercise  than  without  food ;  and  one  should  be 
taken  just  as  regularly  as  the  other. 

The  teacher  must  observe  the  law  in  reference  to 
air.  He  ought  to  have  his  school-room  well  venti- 
lated. Open  windows  and  doors,  even,  are  not  as 
hurtful  as  poisoned  air.  He  should  study,  exercise, 
and  sleep,  where  the  air  is  fresh  and  pure. 

The  teacher  must  observe  the  law  in  reference  to 
diet.  His  food  should  be  nutritive,  not  much  con- 
centrated or  highly  stimulating,  easily  digested, 
taken  regularly,  and  in  such  quantities  only  as  the 
system  demands.  He  should  abstain  entirely  from 
the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  and  tobacco,  both  on 
his  own  account  and  on  the  account  of  his  pupils. 

The  teacher  must  observe  the  law  in  reference  to 
sleep.  There  is  no  employment  that  more  exhausts 
the  nervous  energies  than  teaching.  The  constant 
care  incident  to  it  will  wear  out  the  strongest  con- 
stitution, unless  that  can  be  shut  up  in  the  school- 
house,  or  at  least  shut  out  of  the  sleeping-chamber. 
With  six  or  eight  hours  of  good  sleep,  a  teacher 
may  encounter  his  school-trials  and  perform  his 
school- work  and  continue  to  enjoy  good  health; 
but  without  it,  such  a  result  is  hardly  possible. 
True,  he  may  not  feel  the  exhaustive  drain  upon 
his  life-forces  for  some  years ;  but  at  forty  he  will 
be  an  old  man,  and  at  fifty,  most  likely,  he  will 
be  in  his  grave. 

The  teacher  must  observe  the  law  in  reference  to 
recreation.  He  should  seek  the  society  of  cheerful 
company.  Not  that  he  should  throw  away  his  time 
in  the  frivolous  amusements  that  often  characterize 
the  social  party,  and  still  less  that  he  should  be  found 

28* 


812  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

among  the  loungers  at  stores  and  in  bar-rooms ;  but 
no  man  more  needs  cheerful  conversation  and  plea- 
sant recreation.  Confined  all  day  in  his  school-room, 
keenly  feeling  all  disappointments, — and  disappoint- 
ments there  will  be, — with  all  his  mental  forces  en- 
listed in  his  work, — and  no  work  calls  them  into 
requisition  more  actively, — he  needs  to  find,  when  his 
day's  work  is  done,  a  home  made  cheerful  by  the 
conversation,  reading,  fun,  music,  of  dear  ones  there, 
or  he  needs  to  seek  such  health-preserving  recrea- 
tions among  congenial  companions  elsewhere. 

The  Teacher's  intellectual  Qualifications, — A  teacher 
should  have  a  comprehensive  and  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  branches  he  undertakes  to  teach.  His 
knowledge  should  not  only  embrace  a  subject  as 
treated  of  in  the  text-books  used,  but  reach  its  more 
general  relations.  .  Any  failure  in  this  respect  will 
cripple  his  teaching,  and  tend  to  beget  among  his 
pupils  a  want  of  confidence  in  his  ability.  A  man 
who  understands  the  whole  of  a  subject  will  teach 
any  part  of  it  better  than  one  who  merely  knows 
that  part. 

A  teacher  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  other 
branches  than  those  which  he  teaches.  He  will 
need  to  do  so  in  order  to  make  his  teaching  effective. 
No  one  can  teach  Arithmetic  well  without  possessing 
some  knowledge  of  Algebra,  nor  Geography  without 
History,  nor  Grammar  without  Rhetoric  and  Logic. 
No  teacher  should  be  intrusted  with  the  management 
of  a  school  who  does  not  understand  Physiology; 
and  all  teaching  is  little  better  than  guess-work  that 
is  not  based  upon  the  principles  of  the  Philosophy 
of  the  Mind.     All  this  knowledge,  and  more,  can  be 


THE   TEACHER.  313 

used  by  teachers  in  our  lowest  grades  of  Common 
Schools.  Teachers  cannot  know  too  much.  The 
philosopher  in  his  humility  becomes  as  a  little  child, 
can  win  the  little  child's  sympathy,  and  is  his  best 
teacher.  The  simplest  forms  of  knowledge  always 
proceed  from  the  most  learned.  The  sage  becomes 
a  child  again,  and  thus  the  circle  of  human  mental 
life  completes  itself. 

A  teacher  should  inform  himself  of  current 
events.  Monks  are  no  longer  the  teachers  of  the 
world.  "We  live  in  stirring  times;  and  a  teacher 
must  not  be  a  mere  book-worm  or  a  melancholy 
recluse.  He  must  see  what  passes  in  the  world, 
take  an  interest  in  it,  even  if  he  quietly  look  on 
while  others  play  the  principal  parts  in  the  great 
social  drama.  If  he  does  not,  he  cannot  adapt 
his  teaching  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times,  or  add 
interest  to  his  instruction  by  reference  to  passing 
events.  Teachers,  too,  ought  not  to  forget  that 
we  live  in  America, — not  in  Greece  or  Eome, — 
live  in  the  midst  of  a  struggle  compared  with 
which  the  internal  feuds  of  those  countries  were, 
insignificant. 

A  teacher  needs  thorough  mental  discipline. 
What  teachers  know  is  important ;  but  how  they 
know  it,  is  much  more  so.  They  may  have  obtained 
their  knowledge  in  a  loose,  illogical  manner,  and 
it  may  be  stored  away  in  their  minds  in  confused 
heaps  or  scattered  fragments.  K  so,  they  can  never 
make  successful  teachers.  Only  a  well-disciplined 
mind  can  discipline  another  mind;  and  mental  dis- 
cipline is  the  highest  end  of  education. 

A  teacher  ought  to  be  able  to  make  the  know- 


814  THE  AUTHORITIES   OE   THE   SCHOOL. 

ledge  tie  possesses  available  for  the  purposes  of 
instruction.  Essential  to  this  end  is  a  clear  idea  of 
what  it  is  intended  to  impart.  Many  think  they 
understand  a  subject  when  they  have  but  a  glimpse 
of  it;  and,  when  such  assume  to  be  teachers,  it  is 
the  blind  leading  the  blind.  Essential  to  this  end, 
also,  is  the  ability  to  communicate  what  is  known. 
It  is  possible  to  possess  knowledge  and  be  unable 
to  express  it.  If  the  teacher  is  accustomed  to  make 
use  of  ill-chosen  words,  badly-constructed  sentences, 
or  to  indulge  in  pointless  remarks,  his  pupils  will 
never  increase  their  love  of  learning  under  his 
management.  A  teacher  ought  to  be  a  good  talker. 
A  teacher  must  possess  ability  to  manage  and 
govern  his  school.  This  requires  ingenuity,  skill 
in  adapting  means  to  ends,  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  good  common  sense.  More  teachers  fail  in 
managing  and  governing  their  schools  than  in 
teaching ;  which  shows  that  the  former  kind  of 
ability  should  rank  higher  than  the  latter. 

The  Teacher's  moral  Qualifications, — It  is  an  easy 
thing  to  name  certain  individual  moral  qualities 
which  a  teacher  must  possess  in  order  to  secure 
success  in  his  profession ;  but  he  who  attempts  to 
,  make  a  systematic  classification  of  these  qualities 
will  find  a  task  most  difficult.  That  the  subject  may 
present  itself  prominently  before  the  mind  of  the 
student-teacher  who  may  inquire  into  this  depart- 
ment of  pedagogical  science,  a  kind  of  representa- 
tive classification  will  be  adopted  here,  which  will 
possess  the  advantage  of  suggesting  certain  import- 
ant moral  qualities  which  should  characterize  the 
teacher,  and  at  the  same  time  of  exemplifying  them. 


THE  TEACHER.  815 

The  teacher  must  be,  morally, — 

A  wise  Legislator. 
A  righteous  Judge. 
A  prompt  Executive. 
An  efficient  Workman. 
A  competent  Leader. 
A  liberal  Partisan. 
A  pleasant  Companion. 
A  warm  Friend. 
A  good  Man. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  wise  legislator.  By  the 
expression  "a  wise  legislator'*  is  not  merely  meant 
one  who  can  enact  appropriate  laws  for  the  manage- 
ment and  government  of  his  school.  This  is  an 
intellectual  qualification  very  necessary  to  the 
teacher;  but  certain  moral  qualities  are  now  re- 
ferred to,  not  less  important.  The  legislation  of  a 
school  should  not  consist  merely  in  the  cold  and 
formal  enactment  of  school-laws,  in  the  nice  ad- 
justment of  school-machinery,  but  all  must  be  done 
with  the  view  of  subserving  the  great  end  of  moral 
training.  School-laws  should  tend  not  only  to  pro- 
mote order,  but  virtue,  in  the  school.  The  teacher 
may  legislate  to  secure  comfort,  order,  progress  in 
study,  but  he  must  never  forget  the  while,  that  the 
grand  end  in  which  all  these  ends  centre  is  the  good 
of  his  pupils, — the  summum  bonum  of  the  school. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  righteous  judge.  It  is 
considered  unsafe  in  a  state  to  intrust  the  power 
of  expounding  laws  in  the  same  hands  that  enact 
them.     It  has  been  thought  best  to  remove  the 


816  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

judicial  as  far  from  the  legislative  power  as  pos- 
sible, tliat  it  may  be  exercised  without  bias.  The 
administration  of  justice  is  considered  an  interest 
too  sacred  to  be  endangered  by  partialities  which 
can  be  avoided.  In  a  school,  this  division  of  the 
functions  of  government  is  practically  impossible. 
The  teacher  administers  justice  according  to  laws 
of  his  own  enactment.  His  decision  is  final.  Unless, 
then,  he  has  an  eye  single  to  the  interests  of  his 
pupils,  unless  he  is  strictly  impartial  in  his  judg- 
ments, unless  he  rewards  and  punishes  fairly,  he  is 
unfit  to  be  a  teacher.  The  teacher  should  weigh  all 
his  decisions  in  well-balanced  scales,  blind  to  all 
motives  except  those  of  justice. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  prompt  executive.  Laws, 
however  wise  and  just,  may  be  worthless  unless 
strictly  enforced.  Regulations  which  are  found  only 
in  statute-books  restrain  no  evil-doer.  The  man- 
agement of  a  school  requires  an  efficient  executive. 
Plans  must  be  carried  out,  punishments  must  be 
inflicted,  the  whole  working  of  the  school-machi- 
nery must  be  controlled ;  and  no  other  than  an  active 
head-master  can  do  it.  As  a  ship  in  a  storm  needs 
a  prompt  captain,  as  an  army  in  time  of  battle 
needs  a  prompt  general,  so  a  school  needs  a  prompt 
teacher, — one  who  is  bold,  firm,  self-possessed,  con- 
sistent, and  ready  for  all  emergencies. 

A  teacher  should  be  an  efficient  workman.  The 
teacher  has  more  to  do  than  merely  to  make,  ex- 
pound, and  execute  school-laws:  he  has  to  work 
himself,  his  position  requiring  the  severest  labor. 
The  teacher  must,  therefore,  be  willing  to  work 
and  able  to  work  efficiently.    If  a  teacher  is  un- 


THE    TEACHER.  317 

willing  to  work,  the  school  must  stop ;  if  he  is  un- 
able to  work  efficiently,  the  school  can  only  be  par- 
tially successful.  A  slow,  plodding,  heavy  man — one 
who  must  think  long  before  acting,  and  who  then  acts 
slowly — is  out  of  place  in  the  school-room.  To  teach 
well,  requires  skill,  earnestness,  activity, — skill  to 
know  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it,  and  earnestness 
and  activity  to  make  that  skill  effective.  The  teacher 
should  be  a  model  workman;  for  his  work  is  to  be 
imitated,  and  even  his  manner  of  working  will  be 
copied  by  his  pupils.  A  teacher  can  impress  his 
pupils  through  his  work.  If  he  work  skilfully,  they, 
too,  will  learn  to  do  so;  but  inefficient  teachers 
make  worthless  pupils. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  competent  leader.  Some 
of  the  chief  characteristic  qualities  of  a  competent 
leader  are  energy,  perseverance,  fearlessness,  hope, 
self-confidence,  and  enthusiasm;  and  all  of  these 
are  found  as  elements  in  the  character  of  the  true 
teacher.  The  school-room  is  no  place  for  a  man 
wanting  in  energy,  for  its  work  was  never  yet  per- 
formed without  earnest  effort;  no  place  for  a  man 
wanting  in  perseverance,  for  its  obstacles  were 
never  yet  overcome  by  the  fickle  or  the  weak ;  no 
place  for  a  coward,  for  it  has  its  tests  of  courage, 
and  cowards  must  fail  when  such  crises  come ;  no 
place  for  the  desponding,  for  despair  in  a  teacher 
deadens  the  energies  of  his  pupils ;  no  place  for 
such  as  distrust  their  own  powers,  for  those  who 
have  no  confidence  in  themselves  cannot  secure  the 
confidence  of  others ;  no  place  for  the  cold  and  phleg- 
matic, for  all  true  love  of  knowledge  and  all  earnest 
pursuit  of  it  must  be  characterized  by  enthusiasm. 


318  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Some  men  seem  born  to  command.  There  is  an 
air  of  authority  about  them.  Other  men  at  once 
attract  the  ready  sympathy  of  those  with  whom 
they  come  in  contact.  There  is  something  magnetic 
in  their  very  looks.  Both  qualities  are  always  com- 
bined in  the  successful  leader,  be  he  politician,  war- 
rior, reformer,  or  teacher. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  liberal  partisan.  A  school 
is  the  world  in  miniature.  Modified  in  intensity, 
all  the  party  contests  of  society  appear  in  the  school- 
room. The  school  itself  has  a  tendency  to  break 
up  into  divisions  and  parties.  From  as  many  of 
these  contests  as  possible  the  teacher  should  stand 
entirely  aloof;  but,  when  compelled  to  give  his 
opinion  or  indicate  his  choice  in  action,  it  should 
be  done  in  the  spirit  of  the  utmost  liberality  to  the 
opposing  party.  The  teacher  may  have  opinions 
upon  questions  in  politics  or  religion  which  he  holds 
with  firmness ;  but  in  schools  where  there  are  pupils 
whose  parents  or  themselves  entertain  different 
opinions,  he  must  be  liberal  in  the  largest  sense,  or 
decrease  his  usefulness.  Whenever  a  teacher  in  a 
Common  School  considers  his  duty  to  a  party  para- 
mount to  his  duty  to  his  pupils,  he  should  resign 
his  position  or  be  removed  from  it.  Besides,  the 
teacher  ought  not  to  be  a  man  of  extreme  views. 
His  judgments  should  not  be  harsh  and  hasty.  He 
should  weigh  all  sides  of  questions.  He  should 
compel  all  reasonable  opponents  to  acknowledge  his 
generosity.  When  acting  as  an  umpire  or  settling 
a  disputed  point  among  his  pupils,  he  should  pa- 
tiently listen  to  all  that  can  be  said,  and  then  give 
an  unbiassed  decision  according  to  the  evidence. 


THE   TEACHER.  319 

A  teacher  should  be  a  pleasant  companion.  A 
teacher's  success  in  his  profession  depends  very 
greatly  upon  his  social  qualities.  All  incentives  to 
study  on  the  part  of  pupils  do  not  arise  from  an 
interest  in  study.  There  are  other  influences  pro- 
motive of  good  order  in  a  school  than  those  which 
arise  from  the  enactment  of  strict  regulations. 
Among  the  most  eflective  of  these  is  regard  for 
the  teacher;  and  this  regard  he  can  never  secure 
unless  he  prove  himself  a  pleasant  companion. 
During  intervals  of  relaxation,  the  teacher  enjoys 
opportunities  of  conversing  with  his  pupils;  and 
these  opportunities  may  be  improved  in  a  manner 
highly  advantageous  to  the  interests  of  the  school. 
A  tsuch  times,  the  teacher  can  converse  without 
reserve,  can  make  his  pupils  feel  at  home  in  his 
company  or  even  to  prize  highly  his  society.  In 
the  presence  of  his  pupils,  a  teacher  should  be 
polite,  agreeable,  kind,  communicative,  even  mirth- 
ful, but  never  trifling  or  undignified.  A  teacher 
may  talk  freely  with  his  pupils,  play  and  joke  with 
them,  and  yet  preserve  their  highest  respect ;  and 
such  a  teacher  will  be  able  to  impart  instruction 
much  more  effectively  than  another  who  is  distant, 
formal,  and  unsocial.  Even  when  in  the  discharge 
of  official  duties,  a  teacher  should  show  himself 
genial  in  disposition,  frank  in  manner,  and  always 
willing  to  sacrifice  his  comfort  for  his  pupils'  inte- 
rests. Requests  may  be  refused,  and  faults  punished, 
without  leaving  an  impression  of  unkindness. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  warm  friend.  Between 
sociability  and  friendship  there  is  a  difference.  A 
teacher  should  not  only  be  a  pleasant  companion, 

29 


320  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

but  a  warm  friend.  No  one  can  teach  well  who 
does  not  love  those  whom  he  instructs.  The  in- 
stincts of  children  guide  them  correctly  in  choosing 
friends.  To  some  persons  they  are  at  once  attracted, 
and  from  others  they  shrink  away.  It  is  by  those 
with  whom  they  sympathize  that  they  can  be  best 
taught.  The  love  of  children  is  easily  gained  by 
those  who  love  them ;  but  in  the  school,  as  every- 
where else,  '*Love,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for 
love.'*  A  child  will  not  learn  much  from  a  teacher 
whom  he  does  not  love,  and  what  he  does  learn  is 
of  little  value.  Under  such  circumstances,  intel- 
lectual growth  is  unhealthy,  and  moral  growth  is 
impossible.  A  friend  is  one  who  is  devoted  to  an- 
other, who  regards  his  interests  with  as  much  soli- 
citude as  his  own,  who  will  protect  and  defend  him, 
whose  voice  cheers  him  in  prosperity  and  whose 
hand  gives  him  help  in  adversity.  All  this  a  teacher 
should  be  to  his  pupils.  May  the  day  soon  come 
when  what  was  said  of  a  good  teacher  can  be  said 
of  all  teachers, — that 

"  He,  where'er  he  taught, 
Put  so  much  of  his  heart  into  his  act, 
That  his  example  had  a  magnet's  force, 
And  all  were  swift  to  follow  whom  all  loved.'* 

A  teacher  should  be  a  good  man.  The  same  obli- 
gation rests  upon  all  men  to  be  good  for  their  own 
sakes;  but  the  position  of  some  renders  their  ex- 
ample more  influential  for  good  or  evil  than  that  of 
others.  The  teacher's  example  is  all-powerful,  as  he 
is  surrounded  by  the  young,  who  are  at  once  unsus- 
pecting and  imitative.  Who  deliberately  could  do 
aught  to  harm  the  moral  nature  of  an  innocent  child? 


THE   TEACHER.  321 

The  ruined  picture  of  an  artist  may  be  repainted, 
a  broken  statue  may  be  resculptured,  subsequent 
legislation  may  correct  the  statesman's  errors,  a  su- 
preme court  may  right  the  wrong  committed  in  an 
inferior  one,  the  death  of  the  body  can  but  follow 
the  worst  of  a  physician's  blunders,  mature  minds 
may  counteract  the  poison  of  false  preaching;  but 
what  power  is  there  to  reproduce  purity  in  a  mind 
that  bad  teaching  has  corrupted?  What  legislation 
can  be  provided  to  correct  the  teacher's  mistakes? 
How  much  more  to  be  lamented  is  the  death  of  the 
soul  than  the  death  of  the  body!  How  much  worse 
his  conduct,  even,  who  leads  astray  innocent,  confi- 
ding children,  than  his  the  influence  of  whose  bad 
example  and  false  doctrine  can  be  neutralized  by 
the  mature  intellects  and  settled  convictions  of  full- 
grown  men !  The  teacher  should  be  a  model  man, 
— a  model  in  manners,  a  model  in  scholarship,  a 
model  in  virtue.  Christianity  should,  find  in  him 
that  union  of  faith  and  works  which  ever  character- 
izes its  truest  followers.     Remember,  teacher, — 

"Thou  must  be  true  thyself, 

If  thou  the  truth  wouldst" teach; 
Thy  soul  must  overflow,  if  thou 

Another's  soul  wouldst  reach. 
It  needs  the  overflow  of  heart 

To  give  the  lips  full  speech. 

«*  Think  truly,  and  thy  thoughts 
Shall  the  world's  famine  feed; 
Speak  truly,  and  each  word  of  thine 

Shall  be  a  fruitful  seed ; 
Live  truly,  and  thy  life  shall  bo 
A  great  and  noble  creed.'* 


322  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

The  Teacher* s  professional  Qualifications, — A  teacher 
is  born,  not  made.  The  principles  of  teaching  are 
as  readily  reduced  to  a  system,  and  as  susceptible  of 
study,  as  those  of  Law  or  Medicine ;  but  still  the  ele- 
ments of  character  which  make  a  man  a  successful 
teacher  must  be  inborn.  A  professional  education 
can  only  improve,  it  cannot  create,  talent.  It  follows 
that  the  first  professional  qualification  which  it  is 
necessary  for  a  teacher  to  possess  is  those  natural 
qualities  of  head  and  heart  which  constitute  "  aptness 
to  teach.**  With  these  qualities,  all  other  profes- 
sional qualifications  are  readily  attainable;  without 
them,  success  in  teaching  is  impossible. 

In  addition  to  this  natural  aptness  to  teach,  and 
based  upon  it,  there  are  other  professional  qualifica- 
tions needed  by  the  teacher,  among  which  are  the 
following: — 

A  correct  Idea  of  the  Teacher's  Work. 

A  profound  Knowledge  of  the  Human  Constitutionj 
corporeal  and  menial. 

An  intimate  Acquaintance  with  educational  Means. 

A  full  Understanding  of  Methods  of  Teaching. 

A  great  Tact  in  the  Management  and  Government  of 
Schools. 

A  thorough  Discipline  of  the  Powers  used  in  School- 
work. 

A  teacher  must  have  a  correct  idea  of  his  work. 
This  work  consists  in  educating  human  beings,  in 
bringing  body  and  mind  to  that  state  of  perfection 
of  which  they  are  capable:  than  this,  no  other  task 
which  it  is  our  duty  to  perform  can  be  more  import- 
ant or  more  difficult.    Man  was  the  last  made  of 


THE   TEACHER.  323 

created  things,  the  master-piece,  the  crowning  glory 
of  the  whole,  the  complement  of  all  the  rest.  That 
in  man  which  distinguishes  him  from  the  brutes  that 
perish,  is  his  mind;  and  it  is  mostly  with  this  that 
the  teacher  is  concerned.     If 

"On  earth,  there  is  nothing  great  but  man, 
In  man  there  is  nothing  great  but  mind," 

how  transcendently  great  is  the  teacher's  work! 
The  education  of  a  human  soul!  The  training  of 
an  immortal  being !  An  angel  might  well  tremble 
in  undertaking  such  a  task.  How,  then,  can  weak 
mortals  perform  it  without  at  least  making  an  effort 
to  learn  its  nature,  its  importance,  and  its  magnitude  ? 
As  well  might  a  rough  stone-mason,  with  no  sense  of 
beauty  in  his  soul,  expect  to  chisel  from  marble 
a  statue  like  that  of  Venus  or  the  Greek  Slave,  as 
for  an  illiterate  schoolmaster  with  no  high  ideal  of 
human  worth,  human  perfection,  or  human  destiny, 
to  hope  to  develop  the  noble  powers  with  which 
God  has  endowed  mankind. 

A  teacher  must  have  a  profound  knowledge  of  the 
human  constitution,  corporeal  and  mental.  A  phy- 
sician finds  it  necessary,  in  order  to  attain  professional 
skill,  to  study  carefully  the  human  body;  and,  for  the 
same  reason,  a  teacher  must  study  that  upon  which  he 
is  to  operate, — ^the  human,  mental  and  corporeal,  con- 
stitution. Pope  said,  "  The  proper  study  of  mankind 
is  man;"  and  the  teacher  has  much  more  reason  to 
engage  in  this  study  than  others,  because  without  a 
foundation  of  principles  gained  in  this  way,  all  teach- 
ing would  be  mere  guess-work.      In  preparing  to 

29* 


824  THE   AUTHORITIES   OP   THE   SCHOOL. 

teach,  therefore,  a  teacher  should  make  himself 
familiar  with  the  facts  and  principles  of  Physiolo- 
gical, Anthropological,  and  Psychological  Science. 

A  teacher  must  have  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  educational  means.  Man  and  nature  are  cor- 
relatives. The  earth  yields  food  fit  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  body  no  more  freely  or  abundantly  than 
it  furnishes  means  for  the  culture  of  the  mind. 
But  the  teacher  must  know  how  to  search  out  these 
means,  to  embody  them  into  systems,  and  to  adapt 
them  to  the  purposes  of  education.  If  the  memory, 
reason,  imagination,  conscience,  and  other  mental 
powers  need  culture,  the  teacher  must  be  able  to 
select  appropriate  means  of  imparting  it.  It  is  some- 
times thought  that  a  knowledge  of  a  branch  of  study 
is  all  that  is  necessary  to  enable  one  to  teach  it;  but 
to  show  this  view  to  be  erroneous,  it  may  be  stated 
that  a  teacher  should  know  whether  a  particular 
branch  of  learning  is  the  proper  one  to  teach  under 
the  circumstances,  and  in  what  order  its  several  parts 
should  be  taught,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing it.  In  order  to  select  proper  studies  for  a  school, 
a  teacher  must  be  acquainted  with  all  the  means 
used  in  education;  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  relations  of  its  several  parts  is  necessary  to  en- 
able a  teacher  to  discuss  a  subject  in  its  logical  order. 

A  teacher  must  have  a  full  understanding  of 
methods  of  teaching.  With  a  knowledge  of  the 
nature  of  man's  educational  wants  on  the  one  hand, 
and  of  the  means  of  satisfying  these  wants  on  the 
other,  the  teacher  must  still  study  the  methods  of 
making  the  application.  The  physician  finds  it 
necessary  to  study  methods  of  administering  his 


THE   TEACHEE.  325 

medicines;  the  farmer,  the  methods  of  fertilizing 
his  land;  the  mechanic,  the  methods  of  making 
coats,  shoes,  and  carriages:  and  so  the  teacher,  in 
like  manner,  must  prepare  himself  for  his  work. 
The  science  of  method  is  not  mastered  by  easy- 
efforts.  The  great  Bacon  left  incomplete  his  Phi- 
losophy of  the  method  of  acquiring  knowledge; 
and  the  Philosophy  of  the  method  of  imparting  it 
is  not  less  difficult.  Even  when  the  principles  upon 
which  methods  of  teaching  are  based  are  under- 
stood, much  practice  is  often  necessary  in  attaining 
skill  in  the  use  of  them.  Teaching  is  not  a  lifeless 
routine.  The  teacher,  unlike  an  engineer  or  a  pilot, 
cannot  do  his  work  according  to  mere  mechanical 
principles.  He  must  so  teach  as  to  induce  thought, 
evoke  power,  develop  strength,  and  inspire  activity 
on  the  part  of  his  pupils.  Education  is  a  growth, 
not  an  aggregation  or  a  concretion. 

A  teacher  must  have  great  tact  in  the  management 
and  government  of  schools.  Schools  are  not  well 
managed  or  well  governed  according  to  arbitrary  or 
variable  principles.  Human  nature  is  the  same  every- 
where, although  it  disguises  itself  in  so  many  forms. 
The  kinds  of  discipline  which  preserve  good  order  in 
one  school  will  preserve  it  in  another:  the  methods 
of  application  only  should  be  different.  It  follows 
that  there  is  a  theory  of  school-management  and 
school-government  which  can  be  learned;  and  a 
teacher  can  no  more  dispense  with  a  knowledge  of 
it  than  a  captain  who  manages  a  ship  can  dispense 
with  a  knowledge  of  Navigation,  an  engineer  who 
builds  a  railroad,  with  a  knowledge  of  Engineering, 
or  a  general  who  commands  an  army,  with  a  know- 


326  THE   AUTHOKITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

ledge  of  Military  Tactics.  But  theoretical  know- 
ledge alone  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  an  individual 
to  teach  successfully :  he  must  possess  the  tact  to 
apply  it.  There  are  men  who  naturally  assume  the 
direction  of  afeirs,  who  are  abundant  in  resources, 
fertile  in  expedients,  who  seem  to  peer  into  futurity 
and  foresee  contingencies  which  they  skilfully  pro- 
vide for.  This  is  what  I  mean  by  tact;  and  no  man 
needs  it  more  than  the  teacher. 

A  teacher  must  secure  a  thorough  discipline  of  all 
the  powers  used  in  his  school-work.  Teaching  is  not 
a  dumb  show ;  it  is  an  active  life.  The  teacher  is  a 
workman,  and  must  make  all  his  talent  and  skill 
available.  He  should  have  the  forces  he  is  to  em- 
ploy under  the  best  control.  He  should  have  a 
quick-moving  body,  an  active  intellect,  strong  but 
well-controlled  feelings,  a  determined  will,  and 
gifted  powers  of  expression.  His  stores  of  intel- 
lectual wealth  should  be  abundant,  and  ever  ready 
for  use.  His  skill  should  become  a  habit.  His 
eyes  should  see  every  thing,  his  ears  hear  every 
thing,  that  transpires  in  the  school-room;  and  his 
keen  discernment  of  human  character  should  en- 
able him  to  guard  against  improper  conduct  which 
is  only  contemplated,  as  well  as  to  detect  the 
authors  of  mischief  already  committed.  Thorough 
discipline  of  the  powers  used  in  school-work  is 
needed  to  accomplish  all  this. 

3.  The  Teacher's  Duties  to. his  Pupils. — Pupils 
legally  bear  the  same  relation  to  their  teachers  that 
children  do  to  their  parents.  The  teacher  is  recog- 
nized as  being  in  loco  parentis  ;  and,  occupying  this 
position,  the  law  will  justify  him  in  any  treatment 


THE   TEACHER.  827 

of  his  pupils  at  school  that  it  will  justify  in  paren'^.s 
at  home.  Parents  and  teachers  thus  stand  side  by 
side  in  the  work  of  education ;  and  they  should  will- 
ingly co-operate  in  the  performance  of  that  work. 
Children  are  very  dear  to  parents;  and  teachers 
ought  to  be  most  careful  not  to  lessen  their  respect 
for  parental  authority,  or  to  adopt  plans  in  violation 
of  parental  wishes.  Admitting  that  a  teacher  gene- 
rally knows  best  what  is  for  the  good  of  his  pupils, 
it  is  not  well  for  him  to  insist  upon  his  methods  or 
plans  too  strongly  against  the  known  wishes  of  his 
patrons.  Means  may  be  taken  to  convince  them  of 
their  error,  or  a  stubborn  few  may  be  disregarded ; 
but  the  odds  of  an  unwilling  many  are  too  great  for 
a  teacher  to  expect  success  from  measures  of  coer- 
cion. A  teacher's  duties  to  his  pupils  may  thus  be 
modified  in  practice  by  his  relations  to  their  parents 
and  guardians. 

The  teacher's  duties  to  his  pupils,  too,  may  be 
modified  by  his  relations  to  the  General  School- 
Officers.  If  he  is  employed  to  do  a  certain  amount 
and  kind  of  work,  he  must  fulfil  the  contract  or  re- 
sign his  position,  whether  he  thinks  he  is  doing  the 
greatest  good  to  his  pupils,  or  otherwise. 

Subject  to  these  modifications,  the  teacher's  duty 
to  his  pupils  consists  in  supplying  their  wants,  as 
follows: — 

Ist.   Their  physical  Wants. 

2d.    Their  intellectual  Wants. 

3d.    Their  cesthetic  Wants. 

4th.  Their  moral  Wants. 

The  physical  Wants  of  Pupils. — The  locating  of 


328  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

scliools  and  the  building  of  school-houses  do  not 
often  come  within  the  province  of  the  teacher;  and 
it  needs  only  to  be  said  here  that  both  should  be 
done  with  reference  to  the  health  and  comfort  of 
pupils,  and  wherever  he  can  he  should  use  his  in- 
fluence to  that  end.  If  a  teacher  cannot  choose  the 
location  of  his  school-house  or  plan  its  erection,  he 
can  often  remedy  its  defects  by  bringing  them  be- 
fore the  proper  school-authorities ;  he  can  keep  his 
school-house  clean  and  neat;  he  can  have  it  pro- 
perly heated,  lighted,  and  ventilated;  he  can  give 
his  pupils  comfortable  seats,  and  he  can  grant  them 
sufficient  time  for  exercise  and  encourage  them  to 
take  it. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  notice  whether  any  of 
his  pupils  are  seated  in  parts  of  the  house  which  are 
too  warm  or  too  cold ;  whether  any  take  too  little 
exercise  or  are  becoming  precociously  developed; 
whether  any  are  contracting  habits  which  will  prove 
injurious  to  their  health :  in  short,  it  is  his  duty  to 
care  for  his  pupils  as  he  would  for  his  own  children 
or  for  himself.  It  is  time  teachers  should  know 
that  the  physical  wants  of  pupils — their  health, 
strength,  and  comfort — are  among  the  objects  of 
education. 

The  intellectual  Wants  of  Pupils. — The  objects  of 
study  were  stated  elsewhere  to  be  Knowledge,  Dis- 
cipline, Aspiration,  and  Efficiency;  and  these, 
therefore,  are  the  intellectual  wants  which  it  is 
the  teacher's  duty  to  supply.  ITo  argument  is 
needed  to  enforce  that  duty:  all  teachers  acknow- 
ledge it.  It  ought  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
the  intellectual  want  of  a  child  is  not  satisfied  by 


THE    TEACHER.  329 

instruction  in  branches  of  learning.  It  includes 
the  harmonious  culture  of  all  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  the  awakening  of  ideals  of  perfection  in  the 
soul  und  aspirings  towards  them,  and  the  evoking 
of  that  strength  of  character  before  which  difficul- 
ties disappear,  and  by  which  man,  rejecting  error 
and  holding  fast  to  truth,  attains  the  end  of  his 
being. 

The  (Esthetic  Wants  of  Pupils, — The  American 
people  are  wanting  in  good  taste.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions ;  but  how  large  a  proportion  of  our  houses, 
grounds,  gardens, —  dresses,  even,  —  are  arranged 
without  any  reference  to  the  pleasing  effect  they  may 
produce !  We  prefer  to  fill  our  pockets  with  money 
rather  than  our  souls  with  ideas  of  the  beautiful. 
Something  may  be  done  to  supply  this  want  in  our 
schools. 

Many  children  in  our  schools  are  uncouth  in 
their  manners  and  uncivil  in  their  treatment  of 
their  school-fellows.  They  are  sometimes  impolite 
to  strangers,  wanting  in  respect  to  the  aged,  and 
ready  to  make  sport  of  the  poor  or  the  distressed. 
All  this  it  is  the  teacher's  duty,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  correct. 

He  should  do  more:  he  should  teach  them  to 
love  the  beautiful  in  nature,  in  art,  and  in  human 
actions. 

The  moral  Wants  of  Pupils. — It  is  much  more  im- 
portant that  men  should  be  good  than  that  they 
should  be  learned.  The  culture  of  the  heart  should 
always  accompany  the  culture  of  the  intellect.  In- 
tellectual efforts  ill  directed  are  a  curse  to  the  world: 
they  must  be  guided  by  moral  principles  to  be  a 


830  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

blessing.  Besides,  our  intellectual  nature  is  influ- 
enced by  our  moral  nature.  "We  do  not  think  as 
we  did  before,  after  having  experienced  some  great 
grief,  having  been  swayed  by  some  wild  passion, 
or  having  performed  some  noble  deed.  The  mind 
of  a  nation  is  changed  by  a  civil  commotion  or  a 
foreign  war. 

The  teacher's  duty  in  regard  to  supplying  the 
moral  wants  of  his  pupils  is  plain,  and  has  been 
elsewhere  indirectly  enforced;  but  it  might  be 
added  that  it  is  his  duty  also,  wherever  so  privi- 
leged, to  impart  religious  instruction.  Denomina- 
tional differences  may  make  it  proper  that  this 
kind  of  instruction  should  be  mainly  imparted  by 
parents.  Sabbath-school  teachers,  or  clergymen ;  but 
nothing  could  wrong  a  child  more  deeply  than  to 
deprive  him  of  it. 

If  the  teacher  is  precluded  from  giving  direct  re- 
ligious instruction, — and  he  is  nowhere  entirely  pre- 
cluded from  it, — his  example,  if  he  is  a  Christian 
man,  imbued  with  a  true  Christian  spirit,  will  be  a 
constant  illustration  of  religious  duties  well  per- 
formed, and  must  have  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  susceptible  minds  of  his  pupils  who  love  him. 
How  dear  the  Good  Father  would  become  to  many 
if  the  teacher  loved  Him  truly!  How  near  would 
seem  His  protecting  arm  if  the  teacher  always  re- 
lied upon  it!  Happy  the  day  when  our  schools 
shall  be  taught  by  such  teachers ! 

It  is  a  sublime  sight  to  see  a  little  child  at  prayer. 
What  strong  faith  he  has !  How  confidently  he 
talks  in  his  childish  way  with  God  !  How  sure  he 
is  that  father,  mother,  brother^  sister,  will  be  safe, 


THE    TEACHER.  331 

because  he  has  asked  it !  Parent,  teacher  mar  not 
by  your  coarse  methods  this  opening  bud  of  religious 
feeling.  It  is  yours  to  train,  to  make  bloom  and 
ripen,  but  not  to  blast.  There  is  no  treasure  on 
earth  so  precious  as  a  human  soul. 

4.  The  Teacher's  Duties  to  his  Profession. — In 
order  to  examine  the  question  as  to  whether  Teach- 
ing has  just  claims  to  the  rank  of  a  profession,  it 
will  be  well  to  state  the  principal  conditions  and  re- 
quirements of  a  profession,  and  then  ascertain  how 
far  teaching  answers  them.  A  profession  must  be 
characterized  by  the  following  conditions  and  re- 
quirements : — 1st,  It  must  have  a  noble  aim ;  2d,  Its 
operations  must  not  be  merely  mechanical,  but  sci- 
entific in  their  character;  3d.  It  must  require  on 
the  part  of  its  members  a  learned  general  educa- 
tion ;  4th,  Its  nature  must  be  such  as  to  render 
special  preparation  necessary  to  success;  5th,  It 
should  have  provided  an  authority  competent  to 
decide  upon  the  qualifications  of  those  who  apply  to 
become  members;  6th,  There  must  be  some  com- 
mon bond  of  union  and  mutual  recognition  of  claims 
to  membership. 

Teaching  aims  to  train,  instruct,  and  develop  the 
various  powers  and  faculties  of  man,  to  make  him 
as  perfect  as  his  nature  admits,  to  cause  him  to  fill 
worthily  the  place  God  designed  for  him.  Than 
this,  earth  has  no  nobler  aim. 

A  science  is  a  systematic  arrangement  of  prin- 
ciples. A  certain  work  is  performed  scientifically 
when  it  is  done  according  to  fixed  general  laws  and 
in  virtue  of  them.  Fixed  general  laws  govern  the 
relations  of  means  to  ends  in  education  ;  and  these 

30 


832  THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

may  be  learned  and  applied.  If,  therefore,  there  is 
no  science  of  Teaching,  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
science.  Many  teachers  perform  their  work  me- 
chanically ;  but  no  profession  can  claim  exemption 
from  quackery. 

No  one  can  teach  what  he  does  not  know.  Empty 
granaries  do  not  furnish  food.  The  teacher  must  be 
a  learned  man.  He  can  find  use  for  all  kinds  of 
learning.  It  is  through  him  that  others  obtain 
learning;  and  a  stream  is  not  apt  to  rise  higher  than 
its  fountain. 

Many  pages  of  this  book  cannot  be  read  by  a 
candid  man  without  his  coming  to  the  conclusion 
that  teachers  need  special  preparation  for  their  work. 
The  education  of  a  human  soul  is  certainly  a  task 
as  difficult  as  that  of  making  shoes,  building  houses, 
or  farming  land.  Success  may  be  attained  in  any 
profession  by  practice ;  but  in  none  are  blind  experi- 
ments so  dangerous  as  in  Teaching. 

There  is  no  more  intrinsic  difficulty  in  guarding 
Teaching  from  the  intrusion  of  the  unworthy  by  the 
adoption  of  a  proper  standard  of  qualifications  for 
membership,  and  by  providing  an  authority  compe- 
tent to  apply  that  standard,  than  there  is  with  regard 
to  the  professions  of  Law,  Medicine,  or  Theology. 
Knowledge  and  skill  can  be  as  readily  estimated  in 
Teaching  as  in  any  other  profession. 

The  lines  by  which  Teaching  is  separated  from 
other  kinds  of  business  have  not  been  very  well 
defined,  and,  consequently,  professional  feeling 
among  teachers  has  not  been  very  prominently  mani- 
fested. Let  teachers  once  know  who  are  teachers, 
and  no  other  profession  will  exhibit  a  better  esprit  du 


THE   TEACHER.  333 

corps.    A  meeting  of  intelligent  teachers,  even  now, 
is  a  model  in  this  respect. 

If  Teaching  is  a  profession,  as  it  seems  now 
proven  to  be,  the  teacher  has  certain  duties  towards 
it,  which  are  next  to  be  pointed  out.  Among  them 
are  the  following : — 

1st.   To  adorn  it  by  his  Skill  and  Scholarship. 

2d.    To  dignify  it  by  his  personal  Worth. 

3d.  To  elevate  it  by  encouraging  all  Means  of  Pro- 
fessional Improvement. 

4th.  To  render  it  more  united,  by  shoioing  Hespect  to 
his  Fellow-  Teachers. 

Every  teacher  should  adorn  his  profession  by  his 
skill  and  scholarship. — In  the  past,  those  who  have 
been  the  instructors  of  youth  in  the  lower  grades 
of  schools  have  not,  generally,  been  distinguished  as 
learned  men.  Schoolmasters  have  been  ridiculed 
in  various  literary  works  for  their  ignorance  or  their 
pedantry;  and  these  sentiments,  if  unjust  in  par- 
ticular instances,  expressed  doubtless  the  common 
estimate  of  their  scholarship.  A  high  standard  of 
scholarship  is  not  required,  even  at  the  present  time, 
in  one  who  wishes  to  enter  upon  the  work  of  Com- 
mon-School teaching.  The  vast  majority  of  those 
now  engaged  in  teaching  the  Common  Schools  of 
this  country  are  in  no  way  distinguished  for  learn- 
ing, and  it  cannot  be  much  wondered  at,  as  long  as 
such  is  the  fact,  that  many  will  be  unwilling  to 
recognize  Teaching  as  belonging  to  the  learned 
professions.  True,  such  a  conclusion  would  be  un- 
warranted, if  teachers  in  all  grades  of  schools  are 


334  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

included  in  the  calculation ;  for  no  other  profession, 
either  in  the  past  or  at  the  present,  can  present  a 
greater  array  of  learned  men  than  Teaching;  but  it 
shows  plainly  enough  that  the  ignorance  of  its  mem 
bers  tends  to  degrade  a  profession. 

A  teacher  who  properly  appreciates  his  work,  who 
loves  his  profession,  who  desires  to  see  it  honored, 
will  exert  himself  to  increase  his  own  store  of  know- 
ledge and  to  excite  a  love  of  learning  among  his 
brother-teachers.  He  will  constantly  strive  to  at- 
tain skill  in  teaching,  not  more  for  his  own  honor 
than  for  the  honor  of  his  profession.  Even  though 
his  position  be  an  humble  one,  he  will  be  ambitious 
to  so  improve  his  opportunities  of  learning  and  at- 
taining skill  in  his  work,  that  subsequent  generations 
of  teachers  will  speak  his  name  with  praise. 

Every  teacher  should  dignify  his  profession  by  his  per- 
sonal  worth, — The  character  of  a  profession  is  judged 
by  the  character  of  those  who  practise  it.  Their 
standing  constitutes  its  standing.  A  man  of  emi- 
nent worth  dignifies,  while  a  bad  man  disgraces,  a 
profession.  The  members  of  all  professions  are 
proud  of  the  wise  and  good  men  who  have  borne 
their  professional  name ;  and  they  are  ashamed  to 
acknowledge  as  fellow-members  those  who  are  weak, 
dishonorable,  or  selfish. 

"Every  man,"  said  Webster,  "owes  a  debt  to  his 
profession.*'  Upon  entering  a  profession,  an  indi- 
vidual receives  from  it  position,  fellowship,  honor, 
means  of  emolument;  and  for  this  service  he  owes 
it  a  debt  which  he  cannot  pay  without  leading  a  life 
of  integrity.  He  is  a  robber  who  takes  from  his 
profession  what  he  does  not  return  to  it. 


THE   TEACHER.  335 

The  standing  of  the  teacher's  profession  depends, 
perhaps  more  than  some  others,  upon  the  personal 
worth  of  its  members;  for  it  is  universally  felt  that 
a  bad  man  should  not  be  a  teacher.  I  have  said  else- 
where that  the  teacher  should  be  a  model  man, — a 
model  man  in  order  to  be  a  man,  a  model  man  in 
order  to  present  a  good  example,  a  model  man  in 
order  to  dignify  his  profession. 

Every  teacher  should  elevate  his  profession  by  encou- 
raging all  means  of  professional  improvement — It  will 
not  be  denied  by  any  that  improvement  in  teaching 
can  be  made,  or  that  it  is  greatly  needed.  It  will  be 
questioned  by  as  few  that  the  members  of  a  profes- 
sion are  respected  in  proportion  as  the  profession  to 
which  they  belong  is  respected  or  subserves  the  in- 
terests of  society.  Every  member  of  a  profession, 
therefore,  ought  to  assist  in  the  work  of  improving 
it.  Besides,  a  man  is  judged  by  the  company  he 
keeps;  and  if  teachers  generally  are  ignorant  and 
inefficient,  each  particular  teacher  will  suffer  from 
their  incompetency. 

Teaching  is  making  rapid  advances  at  the  present 
time,  and  it  may  be  expected  to  advance  still  more 
rapidly  in  the  future:  unless,  therefore,  a  teacher 
be  constantly  adding  to  his  stock  of  professional 
knowledge,  he  cannot  keep  abreast  of  the  spirit  of 
the  age,  and  his  method  of  teaching  will  become 
stereotyped  and  unsuited  to  the  condition  of  things 
around  him.  In  addition  to  this,  such  a  teacher  is 
apt  to  become  captious,  and  to  attribute  the  causes 
of  his  failure,  which  exist  in  himself,  to  the  bad  de- 
signs of  cotemporaries  or  the  corruptions  of  the  times. 

The  means  of  professional  instruction  generally 

30* 


336  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

open  to  teachers  are  ItTormal  Schools,  Teachers'  In- 
stitutes and  Associations,  School  Visitations,  books 
on  education,  and  educational  journals. 

Normal  Schools  exist  now  in  many  States.  They 
have  everywhere  sustained  themselves  against  all 
opposition;  and  the  theory  upon  which  they  were 
established  has  been  proven  true  by  the  fruits  they 
have  produced.  Many  good  teachers  have  been 
made  without  the  agency  of  Normal  Schools,  and 
Normal  Schools  do  not  always  make  good  teachers ; 
but  these  institutionaare  just  as  professionally  neces- 
sary to  teachers  as  Medical  Colleges,  Law  Schools, 
or  Theological  Seminaries  are  to  physicians,  lawyers, 
or  clergymen.  Whenever  it  is  possible  for  teachers 
to  enjoy  the  advantages  of  Normal  instruction,  they 
should  do  so.  When  properly  applied,  no  other 
means  can  meet  so  well  the  wants  of  those  who 
intend  to  become  teachers.  Indeed,  no  other  prac- 
tical agency  can  be  conceived  capable  of  constituting 
Teaching  a  regular,  well-defined  profession. 

Teachers'  Institutes  and  Teachers'  Associations 
have  done  a  noble  work  for  teachers,  socially,  intel- 
lectually, morally,  and  professionally.  It  was  by  their 
means  that  teachers  were  first  brought  together  and 
made  acquainted  with  one  another;  it  was  by  their 
means  that  the  desire  for  professional  instruction  was 
first  created ;  and  they  have  been  found  to  subserve 
so  well  the  purposes  of  mutual  instruction  that  their 
number  is  rather  increasing  than  diminishing.  A 
well-conducted  teachers'  meeting  presents  opportu- 
nities to  teachers  of  comparing  views  in  regard  to 
teaching,  of  forming  plans  for  improvement,  and  of 
measuring  the  worth  of  new  principles.  They  furnish 


THE   TEACHER.  337 

a  most  agreeable  respite  from  school-duty,  break  up 
that  feeling  of  exclusiveness  and  pedantry  which 
school-life  is  so  apt  to  engender,  and  cause  those 
who  take  part  in  them  to  return  to  their  labors  with 
freshened  spirit,  renewed  energy,  and  higher  views 
of  the  work  in  which  they  are  engaged. 

Teachers  can  gain  much  professional  information 
by  visiting  the  schools  of  others.  Many  of  the 
most  successful  teachers  improve  every  opportunity 
of  making  such  visitations,  and  their  uniform  testi- 
mony is  that  they  derive  great  profit  from  it.  No 
wide-awake  teacher  could  see  a  school  in  opera- 
tion without  learning  something.  He  might  learn 
to  avoid  errors  by  seeing  their  effects  in  badly- 
managed  schools,  and  he  might  learn  the  value  of 
new  methods  of  teaching  by  noticing  their  opera- 
tion in  schools  well  conducted.  What  we  see  gene- 
rally makes  a  deeper  impression  upon  us  than  what 
we  hear  described;  and  in  school-visitations  the  good 
and  the  bad  are  both  exhibited  in  the  most  striking 
form. 

Teaching  can  no  longer  be  said  to  have  no  litera- 
ture. The  books  of  a  profession  are  those  which 
discuss  its  subject-matter  or  those  which  relate  to 
its  practice.  The  latter  class  form  a  very  small 
portion  of  professional  works.  In  its  subject-mat- 
ter, Teaching  comprehends  all  works  on  all  subjects. 
The  richest  libraries  can  contain  no  book  that  a 
teacher  may  not  use.  With  respect  to  works  on  the 
Practice  of  Teaching,  it  is  not  difficult  to  collect  one 
hundred  valuable  volumes  in  the  English  language ; 
and  other  hundreds  have  been  published  m  the 
various  parts  of  Continental  Europe.     To  a  teacher 


338  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

wlio  is  ambitious  to  succeed,  a  professional  library 
is  indispensable. 

To  keep  himself  informed  of  current  educational 
events,  every  teacber  should  read  educational  jour- 
nals. He  will  obtain  from  them  valuable  facts  and 
important  suggestions;  and  they  will  keep  alive 
his  professional  interest. 

Every  teacher  should  render  his  profession  more 
united^  by  showing  respect  to  his  fellow-teachers. — 
There  is  much  needed  among  teachers  greater  pro- 
fessional unity,  a  better  esprit  du  corps;  and  it  can 
be  brought  about  only  in  one  way, — that  of  in- 
creasing the  respect  which  teacher  shows  to  teacher. 
Teachers  ought  to  show  a  proper  respect  towards  all 
men ;  but  common  interests  and  objects  of  pursuit 
should  create  among  teachers  peculiar  feelings  of 
sympathy  and  a  peculiarly  hearty  reciprocation  of 
friendly  regard.  We  are  all  social  beings,  and  find 
strong  incentives  to  action  in  the  approbation  of 
others.  Left  alone  to  work  by  himself,  cheered  by 
no  word  of  approval,  encouraged  by  no  friend, 
stimulated  by  no  hope  of  gaining  a  higher  profes- 
sional position,  the  best  of  teachers  would  find  his 
energies  weaken  and  his  spirits  grow  dull.  With 
troublesome  pupils  and  unappreciating  patrons,  with 
much  work  to  do  and  many  cares  to  weigh  down 
his  spirit,  the  teacher  more  than  most  men  needs 
kindness  and  sympathy ;  and,  if  he  find  such  feel- 
ings among  those  engaged  in  the  same  profession, 
who  have  encountered  the  same  difficulties  and 
experienced  the  same  discouragements,  he  takes 
heart  again,  and  with  freshened  energy  endeavors 
to  perform  his  duty.     There  are  pupils  who  honor 


THE  TEACHER.  339 

their  teacher,  and  parents  who  thank  him ,  hut  he 
needs  those  with  whom  he  can  fraternize.  A  com- 
mon bond  of  sympathy  is  wanting  to  bind  the  mem- 
bers of  the  profession  together  in  fraternal  union. 

Teachers  are  not  always  even  courteous  to  their 
fellow-teachers.  One  teacher  sometimes  endeavors 
to  establish  a  reputation  at  the  expense  of  another. 
Envy  and  jealousy  now  and  then  find  a  home  in 
the  teacher's  bosom.  If  interests  seem  to  clash, 
remember,  the  world  has  work  enough  for  all  good 
men  to  do.  Let  teachers  respect  one  another,  and 
they  will  be  respected. 

5.  A  Teacher's  Life. — In  order  to  show  what 
inducements  there  are  in  this  country  for  young 
men  of  talents  to  become  teachers,  I  propose  in 
this  place  to  present  a  statement  of  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  a  teacher's  life. 

And  first  with  respect  to  the  disadvantages  of  a 
teacher's  life :  it  is  alleged  that  teaching  endangers 
the  health;  exacts  oppressive  duties;  yields  insufficient 
compensation;  furnishes  unsteady  employment ;  spoils  the 
disposition  ;  and  brings  little  honor  or  respect.  While  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  some  truth  in  these 
allegations,  it  is  my  purpose  here  to  learn  to  what 
extent  they  are  true. 

Teachers  have  sometimes  lost  their  health  and 
been  compelled  to  seek  other  employment.  Close 
study,  hard  work  in-doors,  and  harassing  cares, 
without  physical  exercise,  without  social  enjoyment 
or  relaxation,  regardless  of  plain  hygienic  laws,  will 
inevitably  produce  ill  health.  But  is  this  the  neces- 
sary result  of  the  practice  of  teaching  ?  May  not 
the  teacher  regulate  his  diet,  sleep,  exercise,  and 


340  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

social  intercourse  in  sucli  a  manner  that  his  health 
will  not  suffer  from  his  employment  ?  Is  he  com- 
pelled to  violate  the  laws  of  health  ?  If  not,  then 
the  teacher,  and  not  teaching,  is  to  blame. 

The  labor  of  teaching,  when  faithfully  performed, 
is  very  great ;  but  not  more  so  than  that  incident  to 
many  other  kinds  of  business.  Teachers  have  pre- 
paration to  make  for  their  school-duties,  but  very 
few  are  actually  engaged  in  the  discharge  of  those 
duties  more  than  six  hours  a  day ;  while  mechanics 
generally  work  ten  hours  a  day,  farmers,  twelve 
or  fourteen,  merchants  are  confined  behind  their 
counters  or  at  their  desks  from  ten  to  fifteen,  and 
active  physicians  and  lawyers  must  be  always  ready 
to  answer  their  professional  calls.  Teaching  may 
be  as  arduous  as  any  of  these  occupations;  but  it 
requires  fewer  hours  of  actual  duty  per  day  than 
any  of  them,  and,  consequently,  allows  the  teacher 
more  time  that  he  can  call  his  own.  Nor  is  teach- 
ing more  wanting  in  that  variety  of  employment 
which  relieves  the  tedium  of  labor  than  the  other 
kinds  of  business  just  named.  All  of  them  are  in 
a  certain  sense  mechanical ;  all  of  them  require  the 
constant  repetition  of  the  same  processes  as  is  the 
case  in  teaching.  Besides,  the  teacher  has  his  holi- 
days and  vacations,  which  come  to  him  as  liberty 
to  the  prisoner,  as  spring  to  the  birds,  as  the  green 
oasis  to  weary,  thirsty  travellers  in  the  desert. 
These  are  boons  enjoyed  almost  exclusively  by 
teachers,  and  must  be  allowed  to  compensate  in 
some  measure  for  the  care  and  confinement  to 
which  their  profession  at  other  times  subjects 
them. 


THE  TEACHER.  341 

Teachers  have  been,  in  general,  very  inadequately 
remunerated.  The  public  have  not  properly  ap- 
preciated education,  and,  consequently,  have  been 
unwilling  to  pay  largely  for  it.  In  selecting  a  pro- 
fession, a  young  man  very  wisely  takes  into  con- 
sideration the  question  of  compensation.  He  may 
not  make  money  the  only  end  for  which  he  is 
willing  to  labor,  but  he  well  knows  that  life  has 
many  comforts  that  money  alone  can  furnish.  Thus 
considering,  he  who  might  have  become  a  teacher 
chooses  a  more  lucrative  kind  of  business.  It  is 
readily  admitted  that  much  more  money  can  be  made 
in  many  other  callings  than  in  teaching;  but  it  will 
be  shown  directly  that  teaching  has  inducements  of 
a  different  kind,  which  go  far  to  compensate  for  its 
pecuniary  disadvantages.  Even  in  a  moneyed  sense, 
however,  teaching  is  more  remunerative  than  many 
suppose.  A  good  teacher,  one  well  qualified  to  teach 
the  branches  usually  taught  in  ungraded  Common 
Schools,  can  obtain  almost  anywhere  a  salary  of 
from  $400  to  $600  a  year;  and  much  higher  salaries 
can  be  obtained  for  better  qualifications.  In  every 
State  there  are  numerous  positions  open  to  teachers 
at  from  $800  to  $1200  a  year,  and  a  few  at  from 
$2000  to  $3000.  I  speak  with  the  very  best  oppor- 
tunities  of  knowing,  when  I  say  that  a  graduate  of 
one  of  our  ITormal  Schools,  if  he  distinguish  him- 
self as  a  teacher,  need  not  wait  long  for  a  situation 
with  a  salary  of  from  $600  to  $1000  a  year.  Such  a 
one  can  generally  commence  teaching  at  once  with 
an  annual  income  of  $500.  A  young  man  can  as 
easily  and  cheaply  become  a  teacher  as  he  can 
become  a  mechanic ;  and  very  few  mechanics  can 


842  THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

obtain,  without  the  investment  of  capital,  four  hun- 
dred dollars  a  year;  and  many  work  for  half  that 
amount.  It  is  true  that  the  average  salaries  of 
teachers  in  our  country  districts  are  low, — ^very  low ; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  teachers  there 
employed  have  not  generally  made  any  special  pre- 
paration for  teaching,  and  do  not  consider  themselves 
permanently  engaged  in  the  business.  At  the  worst, 
however,  they  are  as  well  paid  as  ordinary  mecha- 
nics; and  the  times  betoken  a  more  enlightened 
liberality  towards  the  deserving.  God  speed  the 
day !  To  a  young  man  desirous  of  becoming  a 
teacher,  no  fortune  can  be  insured ;  but  all  who  do 
their  duty  can  secure  a  safe  and  comfortable  com- 
petency. 

Complaint  is  made  that  teaching  does  not  furnish 
constant  employment.  It  is,  unfortunately,  true  that 
the  length  of  time  for  which  our  Common  Schools 
are  open  in  rural  districts  does  not  average  more 
than  from  six  to  eight  months  in  a  year;  but  it  is 
equally  true  that  competent  teachers  can  almost 
everywhere  find  employment  in  teaching  private 
schools  during  the  vacations  of  the  public  schools. 
Besides,  there  is  such  a  demand  for  well-qualified 
teachers  in  towns,  villages,  and  enlightened  popu- 
lous rural  districts, — in  private  schools  and  acade- 
mies,— that  no  such  teacher  need  be  idle  for  want  of 
work  to  do.  The  demand  for  industrious,  energetic, 
thoroughly  trained  teachers  much  exceeds  the  pre- 
sent supply.  It  ought  not  to  be  expected,  however, 
that  the  highest  positions  in  the  profession  are  at 
once  attainable.  These  will  be  filled,  as  in  all  other 
professions,  by  those  who  win  them  by  success  in 


THE   TEACHER.  348 

inferior  positions.     Aspiring  teachers  must  work 
and  wait. 

There  is  danger,  it  is  said,  that  the  teacher's  dis- 
position will  be  spoiled.  Constantly  annoyed,  he  is 
apt  to  become  captious  and  irritable.  Unaccustomed 
to  hear  his  word  questioned,  he  is  in  danger  of  be- 
coming dictatorial.  Familiar  only  with  those  who 
know  much  less  than  himself,  it  is  not  unlikely  he 
will  become  conceited  and  pedantic.  Monarch  in  the 
school-room,  he  is  apt  to  be  tyrannical  towards 
inferiors,  rude  in  the  presence  of  his  equals,  and 
rebellious  when  commanded  by  his  superiors.  A 
man's  vocation  always  has  a  marked  influence  upon 
his  disposition  and  conduct.  Teaching  is  no  excep- 
tion. The  danger  is  a  real  one;  but  it  may  be 
guarded  against  by  mingling  in  general  society,  by 
becoming  interested  in  public  affairs,  and  by  keeping 
abreast  of  the  times  by  reading,  study,  and  travel. 
The  teacher  must  not  forget  that  he  is  a  citizen  and 
a  member  of  society.  Thus  guarded  against,  the 
influences  of  teaching  upon  the  disposition  are  not 
more  offensive  to  the  general  taste  than  those  pro- 
duced by  other  kinds  of  business.  There  are  neigh- 
borhoods in  which  teachers  are  admitted  into  the 
most  refined  society,  and  in  which  they  are  honored 
guests  in  every  family. 

Teaching  is  not  a  showy  profession.  Its  work  is, 
for  the  most  part,  quiet.  Its  grand  effects  are  the 
results  of  long-continued  effort,  not  of  one  master- 
stroke of  policy  or  one  electric  flash  of  genius.  A 
lawyer  may  make  a  name  by  one  able  forensic  ' 
effort;  a  general,  by  the  conduct  of  a  single  battle; 
a  statesman,  by  a  great  oration  in  the  councils  of  the 

31 


344  THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

nation ;  a  surgeon,  by  a  skilful  operation  whicli  saves 
the  life  and  brings  back  the  health  of  some  poor  vic- 
tim of  disease ;  but  the  teacher  can  win  a  position 
or  a  reputation  only  by  long  and  hard  work.  The 
fruit  of  his  toil  slowly  ripens.  The  faithful  teacher 
is  not  borne  about  in  triumphal  chariots,  the  rap- 
turous huzzas  of  millions  never  greet  his  ears,  cities 
do  not  drape  themselves  in  mourning  when  he  dies, 
nor  do  proud  mausoleums  grace  his  last  resting- 
place.  For  this  reason,  teaching  is  less  attractive 
to  the  ambitious  than  some  other  kinds  of  busi- 
ness ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  much  wondered  at  that  the 
aspiring  youth  should  rather  take  a  chance  in  the 
great  lottery  that  oflers  the  glittering  prizes  of  place 
and  power,  though  ten  thousand  blanks  be  drawn  to 
one  fortunate  venture,  than  to  engage  in  the  quiet 
work  of  rooting  out  evil  from  the  human  heart  and 
training  the  mind  to  a  just  appreciation  of  the  true, 
the  beautiful,  and  the  good.  But,  while  the  popular 
gaze  is  turned  towards  those  who  occupy  the  high 
places  in  the  old  professions,  who  stand  at  the  helm 
of  our  national  ship,  who  lead  our  armies,  the  true 
teacher  needs  not  fail  in  an  effort  to  secure  a  grati- 
fied ambition.  The  teacher  who  nobly  performs  his 
duty  is  in  this  country,  by  discerning  men,  not  less 
honored  than  are  the  members  of  the  other  profes- 
sions. Those  who  are  accustomed  to  look  beneath 
the  surface  for  the  causes  which  operate  in  human 
affairs  easily  recognize  the  moulding,  guiding  hand 
of  the  teacher  in  much  that,  with  the  unthinking, 
passes  to  the  credit  of  others.  The  approbation  of 
one  thoughtful  man  is  worth  more  than  all  the  sense- 
less plaudits  of  a  crowd;  and  to  such,  and  to  posterity, 


THE   TEACHER.  845 

the  teacher  may  look  confidently  for  a  full  apprecia- 
tion of  his  deserts.  The  names  of  such  teachers  as 
Pythagoras,  Socrates,  Seneca,  Pestalozzi,  Francke, 
De  Fellenberg,  Arnold,  Hamilton,  Fenelon,  Page, 
and  Mann,  will  not  perish,  but  be  preserved  among 
the  choicest  treasures  of  history.  And,  to-day,  in 
France,  in  Germany,  in  England,  in  America,  the 
most  profound  thinking  is  done  by  teachers,  and 
nearly  all  the  great  works  in  science  and  philosophy 
are  written  by  them.  They  now  occupy  the  van- 
guard in  the  march  of  human  thought,  and  the  laurel 
waits  to  deck  the  brows  of  the  noble  and  the  brave. 

Having  seen  that  the  disadvantages  of  a  teacher's 
life  are  not  so  great  as  they  seemed,  let  us  examine 
what  may  be  its  advantages.  It  is  more  pleasant, 
too,  to  look  upon  the  bright  side  of  a  picture;  and 
T  gladly  turn  to  it. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  teacher's  life  enables  him  to 
arrange  fixed  hours  for  his  work  ;  necessitates  no  invest- 
ment  of  capital;  gives  freedom  from  the  dangers  and 
temptations  incident  to  many  other  kinds  of  business; 
presents  good  opportunities  for  acquiring  knowledge; 
and  allows  great  privileges  of  doing  good. 

The  teacher  has  his  regular  hours  for  work;  and, 
when  that  work  is  done,  he  can  generally  have  the 
balance  of  his  time  at  his  own  disposal.  The  law- 
yer, the  physician,  the  merchant,  must  always  be 
ready  when  called  upon.  They  may  do  nothing  all 
day  long,  but  they  must  wait,  fearful  to  engage  in 
other  serious  labor,  lest  they  may  be  interrupted,  or 
lest  some  client,  patient,  or  customer  be  disappointed. 
Mechanics,  too,  often  work  under  the  whip  of  their 
employers.     But  the  teacher  can  generally  devote 


846  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

liis  time  out  of  school-hours  to  the  quiet  prepara- 
tion of  his  work,  to  self-improvement,  to  recreation, 
exercise,  or  social  enjoyments.  He  has  advantages 
of  this  kind  that  few  other  employments  admit,  and 
social  regulations  are  such  that  he  can  enjoy  them 
without  constraint. 

With  comparatively  few  exceptions,  teachers  find 
it  unnecessary  to  invest  capital  in  their  business. 
School-buildings  and  school-property  of  all  kinds  are 
generally  owned  by  communities  or  by  companies. 
In  most  cases,  teachers  receive  stated  salaries;  and 
when  their  salaries  are  due,  they  get  their  money, 
subject  to  few  contingencies.  If  they  desire  to 
change  locations,  they  necessarily  sacrifice  little 
property ;  they  are  in  danger  of  making  no  bad  bar- 
gains, and  safe  calculations  can  always  be  made  with 
reference  to  the  relations  between  income  and  ex- 
penditures. Teachers,  of  course,  must  expend  con- 
siderable money  in  preparing  themselves  to  teach; 
but  they  cannot  lose  their  knowledge  by  ill-advised 
purchases  or  wild  speculations. 

Some  kinds  of  business  have  certain  temptations 
and  moral  dangers  from  which  teaching  is  free,  l^o 
one  can  doubt,  who  has  had  opportunities  of  judg- 
ing, that  there  is  much  deceiving,  cheating,  and 
lying  among  business-men.  They  are  tempted  to 
do  it  in  order  to  succeed  in  business.  The  teacher 
has  few  such  temptations  to  resist.  True,  teachers 
sometimes  present  false  statements  to  parents  con- 
cerning the  progress  of  their  children,  and  as  often 
attempt  to  deceive  the  public  by  examinations  and 
exhibitions  contrived  for  effect;  but  such  conduct  is 
so  easily  exposed  that  those  who  resort  to  it  as  a 


THE   TEACHER.  347 

means  of  obtaining  patronage  are  not  numerous. 
Circumstances  constantly  tempt  the  lawyer  to  under- 
take the  justification  of  wrong,  the  merchant  to  over- 
charge his  customers,  the  physician  to  make  unne- 
cessary visits  to  his  patients,  and  the  mechanic  to 
promise  what  he  cannot  fulfil.  It  is  not  claimed  that 
teachers  are  better  than  other  men,  or  that  good 
men  are  not  found  in  all  vocations;  but  it  is  claimed 
that  teaching  harmonizes  more  nearly  with  other  in- 
terests than  most  kinds  of  business,  and  that  the 
quiet  w^alks  of  a  teacher's  life  subject  him  less  than 
most  men  to  the  temptations  arising  from  clashing 
interests  and  social  wrongs,  or  the  dangers  of  mone- 
tary panics,  the  turmoils  of  active  business,  or  the 
disappointed  aspirations  and  unsubstantial  honors 
incident  to  power  and  place. 

Teaching  presents  very  favorable  opportunities  for 
acquiring  knowledge, — first,  in  furnishing  leisure 
time  and  that  mental  state  necessary  to  study,  and, 
second,  in  being  of  such  a  nature  that  the  teacher, 
in  communicating  knowledge  to  others,  learns  him- 
self. There  are  few  teachers  whose  time  is  so  occu- 
pied with  school-duties  that  they  cannot  find  several 
hours  each  day  to  devote  to  private  study ;  and  this 
time,  well  improved,  must  make  scholars. 

A  teacher's  professional  duties,  too,  are  well  cal- 
culated to  induce  that  mental  condition  which  fits 
the  mind  for  successful  study.  Busy  on  the  farm, 
at  the  shop,  or  in  the  office,  most  men  are  so  ab- 
sorbed with  other  cares  and  duties  that  few  can  sit 
down  and  summon  their  mental  energies  to  the  task 
of  systematic  thinking.  With  the  teacher,  it  is  so 
directly  in  the  line  of  professional  duty  that  he  gene- 

3i* 


348  THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

rally  finds  little  difficulty  in  laying  aside  his  school- 
cares  and  devoting  his  leisure  hours  to  communion 
with  books,  or  to  meditation. 

The  teacher  himself  learns  in  communicating 
knowledge.  New  thoughts  are  often  evolved  when 
surrounded  by  sympathizing  or  opposing  hearers. 
They  are  struck  out,  as  it  were,  by  the  union  or 
concussion  of  mental  forces.  A  large  audience  is  a 
necessary  condition  for  the  delivery  of  a  great  ora- 
tion. Every  teacher  feels  that  the  presence  of  his 
class  inspires  him,  and  that  he  understands  the  sub- 
ject of  a  lesson  better  after  the  recitation  than  before 
it.  In  teaching,  he  feels  the  necessity  of  closer, 
clearer  views  of  a  subject,  and  uses  his  best  efforts 
to  obtain  them.  If  our  object  is  merely  to  know  a 
thing,  we  are  satisfied  with  a  muchlooser  knowledge 
of  it  than  if  what  we  know  is  to  be  imparted  to 
others.  Every  one  has  experienced  the  truth  of  this 
statement  who  has  selected  a  familiar  theme  and  sat 
down  to  prepare  an  essay  or  a  lecture  upon  it.  His 
first  impression  will  most  probably  be  one  of  surprise 
that  the  amount  of  knowledge  respecting  it  in  his 
possession  is  so  limited,  and  that  he  has  so  much 
difficulty  in  availing  himself  of  that  which  he  does 
possess.  To  show  that  our  habits  of  thinking  are 
greatly  influenced  by  the  necessity  of  communica- 
ting, I  may  be  allowed  to  quote  the  opinion  of  Sir 
"William  Hamilton,  and  a  few  authorities  named  by 
him.  Sir  William  Hamilton  says, — referring  to  the 
preparation  required  to  communicate  with  skill, — 
"In  this  case,  no  man  will  ever  fully  understand  his 
subject  who  has  not  studied  it  with  a  view  of  com- 
municating; while  the  power  of  communicating  a 


THE   TEACHER.  349 

subject  is  the  only  competent  criterion  of  his  fully 
understanding  it."  "The  one  exclusive  sign,"  says 
Aristotle,  '^that  a  man  is  thoroughly  cognizant  of 
any  thing,  is  that  he  is  able  to  teach  it."  "  To  teach," 
says  Plato,  "is  the  way  for  a  man  to  learn  most  and 
best."  '' Homines  dum  docent,  discunt^''  says  Seneca. 
^'Doce  ut  discaSj'  was  a  maxim  among  the  School- 
men; and  the  celebrated  logician,  Dr.  Sanderson, 
used  to  say,  "I  learn  much  from  my  master,  more 
from  my  equals,  and  most  of  all  from  my  disciples." 
I  extract  the  following  from  an  article  in  Black- 
wood's Magazine: — "Teaching  was  formerly  a  part 
of  the  education  of  students  at  the  universities.  In 
the  olden  time  it  was  necessary  to  the  obtaining  of  a 
degree  that  the  graduate  should  give  evidence  of  his 
capacity  as  a  teacher;  and  in  the  very  titles  of  his 
degree  as  a  Ifagister  and  a  Doctor,  he  was  designated 
as  a  teacher."  Such  authority  and  such  reasons 
cannot  be  questioned;  and  nothing  more  need  be 
said  to  prove  the  fact,  before  stated,  that  teachers 
are  and  must  be  the  best  scholars  in  the  world. 

There  are  open  to  all  men,  who  desire  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  them,  opportunities  of  doing  good.  The 
greatest  good  of  society  can  only  be  attained  through 
the  united  exertions  of  all  its  members.  Each  in 
his  sphere  must  do  all  he  can  for  the  common  weal. 
But  it  is  equally  true  that  certain  vocations  and  cer- 
tain positions  in  society  furnish  more  opportunities 
of  doing  good  than  others;  and  the  teacher  in  this 
respect  is  peculiarly  favored.  The  most  important 
condition  necessary  to  bring  about  the  highest  and 
happiest  state  of  society  is  that  its  members  be  good 
men  and  good  women;  and  if  a  child  trained  up  in 


350  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

the  way  he  should  go  will  not  depart  from  it  when  he 
is  old, — and  I  heartily  endorse  the  sentiment, — and 
teachers  do  much  of  this  training,  it  would  seem  to 
follow  that  good  teaching  lies  at  the  bottom  of  all 
social  reform.  The  population  of  the  United  States 
is  not  less  than  thirty-three  millions ;  and  of  this  num- 
ber at  least  six  millions  are  attending  school.  Very 
soon,  those  who  are  now  engaged  in  the  various  occu- 
pations of  life  will  give  place  to  their  younger  and 
more  vigorous  successors,  now  receiving  an  educa- 
tion in  our  various  institutions  of  learning.  Trained 
here  to  be  intelligent  and  good,  they  will  discharge 
their  duties  as  citizens  and  men  wisely  and  well. 
The  patriot  may  find  by  this  that  his  country's  schools 
can  be  made  the  best  nurseries  of  patriotism,  and 
the  philanthropist  can  discern  that  his  reforms,  to 
be  most  effectual,  must  be  based  upon  the  virtuous 
education  of  the  young. 

The  teacher  has  a  wide  field  in  which  he  may  do 
good.  He  has  the  care  of  children.  He  can  mould 
their  mental  nature  almost  as  he  will.  They  are  in 
his  hands  as  clay  in  the  hands  of  the  potter.  They 
are  his  plants  to  watch  and  care  for,  and  make 
bloom,  and  bud,  and  bear  fruit.  Let  him  take  care 
that  no  weeds  choke  their  growth,  or  no  wrong 
culture  mar  it.  Let  him  remember  that  as  the 
great  oak  retains  the  scar  which  marks  the  wound 
received  centuries  ago,  when  a  tender  sapling,  so 
the  youthful  soul,  hurt  by  a  careless  hand  in  teach- 
ing, may  never  heal.  A  teacher  whose  pupils  have 
grown  to  be  men  and  women  and  engaged  in  active 
life,  may  have  the  proud  satisfaction  of  reflecting 
that  his  was  the  influence  that  gave  strength  to  their 


THE    GENERAL    SCHOOL-OFFICERS.  351 

weak  mental  activities  and  guided  their  tottering 
footsteps  along  the  pathway  which  conducted  them 
to  honor  and  success.  The  farmer  is  pleased  in 
contemplating  his  growing  crop,  or  the  fruit  of  his 
industry  well  harvested ;  the  mechanic  experiences 
a  just  pride  in  gazing  upon  the  results  of  his  own 
cunning  workmanship ;  the  artist  feels  a  thrill  of 
joy  as  he  communes  with  the  forms  of  beauty  he 
has  traced  upon  the  dull  canvas,  or  the  beating 
pulse  and  heaving  bosom  he  has  evoked  from  the 
cold,  dead  marble ;  but  none  of  these  can  realize 
that  high  pleasure  which  the  teacher  enjoys  who 
properly  educates  men  and  women  and  sends  them 
out  to  bless  mankind.  Harvest-fruits  will  pass 
away,  the  most  imposing  structures  of  human  in- 
genuity will  crumble  to  the  dust,  forms  of  beauty 
will  die  out  on  the  canvas,  and  the  tooth  of  time 
will  eat  away  the  hardest  marble ;  but  the  teacher's 
work  is  for  eternity;  ^' every  chord  he  strikes  in  the 
tender  mind  vibrates  at  the  throne  of  God,"  and 
vibrates  ever. 

The  faithful  teacher,  I  repeat,  enjoys  more  than 
most  others  the  high  privilege  of  doing  good.  As 
a  rich  reward,  he  will  receive  the  grateful  thanks  of 
those  whom  his  instruction  may  have  benefited.^ 
and  he  surely  cannot  lose  the  smiles  of  approving 
Heaven. 

n.  The  General  School-OflEieers.— Under  the 

head  of  General  School-Officers  it  is  intended  to 
embrace  the  officers  who,  by  the  names  of  Superin- 
tendents of   Schools,   School-Trustees,   School-Di- 


852  IHB   AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

rectors,  and  School-Committees,  exercise  general 
care  over  scliools  and  school-interests. 

In  speaking  of  the  duties  of  these  officers,  no 
long  discussion  will  be  needed  here,  for  the  greater 
part  of  them  have  already  been  described ;  and  the 
task  I  proposed  to  myself  will  have  been  completed, 
when  I  point  the  officers  to  their  w^ork. 

The  General  School-Officers  select  school-sites 
and  provide  school-grounds.  Their  duty  in  this 
respect  is  an  important  one ;  for  their  choice  will 
not  only  have  an  influence  upon  the  present,  .but 
upon  future,  generations  of  children.  Let  no  false 
notions  of  economy  prevent  the  selection  of  such 
sites  and  the  purchasing  and  arranging  of  such 
grounds  as  evince  at  once  good  judgment  and  taste 
and  show  a  proper  regard  for  the  welfare  of  the 
children  who  are  to  use  and  enjoy  them. 

The  General  School-Officers  grade  the  schools 
and  fix  their  courses  of  study.  The  well-working 
of  a  system  of  schools  depends  much  upon  the 
manner  of  grading  them,  and  the  kind  of  studies 
that  are  pursued  in  the  different  grades;  and  no 
man  is  qualified  to  make  the  necessary  regulations 
concerning  these  matters,  without  giving  the  sub- 
ject careful  consideration.  If  School-Officers  do  not 
possess  the  requisite  knowledge  and  experience, 
they  should  call  to  their  aid  some  one  who  does 
possess  them.  Nowhere  else  is  guess-work  more 
fatal.  A  very  large  number  of  so-called  graded 
schools  are  clogged  and  crippled  in  their  operation 
by  mismanagement. 

The  General  School-Officers  build  and  furnish 
school-houses.     A  school-house  should  be  so  con- 


THE   GENERAL   SCHOOL-OFFICERS.  853 

structed  and  so  furnislied  as  to  answer  in  the  best 
manner  the  purpose  of  its  erection,  to  promote  the 
health  and  comfort  of  those  who  occupy  it,  and  to 
be  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  good  taste. 
Few  of  our  country  school-houses,  few  school-houses 
anywhere  or  of  any  kind,  fully  meet  these  conditions. 
School- Architecture  is  yet  in  its  infancy;  and  its 
progress  will  be  slow  until  more  liberal  opinions 
prevail  among  the  people  respecting  the  kind  and 
character  of  the  education  needed  by  the  young. 
General  School-Officers  often  have  it  in  their  power 
to  change  this  state  of  things  for  the  better ;  and 
whenever  they  are  willing  to  improve  the  school- 
buildings  and  school-furniture  intrusted  to  their 
care,  skill  can  readily  be  found  to  do  it. 

The  General  School-Officers  provide  apparatus  for 
the  schools.  The  teacher  works  at  as  much  dis- 
advantage without  tools  as  the  farmer,  mechanic, 
or  surgeon ;  and  yet  the  duty  of  providing  them  is 
often  neglected.  Indeed,  the  time  is  not  very  far 
distant  when  many  teachers  themselves  considered 
that  a  penknife,  a  ruler,  and  a  hirch^  were  about  all 
the  tools  they  needed.  The  articles  of  school-appa- 
ratus mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  book  are  really 
indispensable  to  good  teaching,  and  the  proper 
authorities  ought  to  procure  them.  It  is  always 
bad  economy  to  pay  men  for  working  with  inferior 
^'mplements. 

The  General  School-Officers  desire  to  preserve  the 
statistics  of  the  schools  under  their  charge,  and,  of 
course,  they  must  furnish  suitable  school-records  for 
that  purpose. 

The  General  School-Officers  employ  teachers ;  and 


854  THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

this  is  the  most  important  part  of  their  duty.  It  ia 
the  teacher  that  must  give  movement  to  the  whole 
school-machinery.  As  the  teacher  is,  so  the  school 
will  be.  No  school-officers  can  know  without 
danger  of  mistake  whether  the  persons  they  em- 
ploy as  teachers  will  prove  in  every  respect  qualified 
for  the  work,  until  they  are  tried ;  but  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  obtain  this  knowledge  to  the 
greatest  extent  practicable.  The  man  into  whose 
hands  the  young  minds  and  tender  hearts  of  the 
children  of  a  neighborhood  are  intrusted,  ought  to 
be  selected  with  the  greatest  care.  If  damage'be 
done  by  an  incompetent  teacher,  the  authorities 
that  employed  him  are  in  great  measure  respon- 
sible for  it.  Before  employing  a  teacher,  the  School- 
Officers  should  inform  themselves, — 

First  As  to  his  appearance,  manners,  tastes,  and 
physical  constitution.  Some  questions  may  be  asked 
him  concerning  some  of  these  points;  but  safe  con- 
clusions can  generally  be  reached  by  close  observa- 
tion while  in  conference  with  him. 

Second,  As  to  his  intellectual  qualifications.  The 
intellectual  qualifications  of  a  teacher  can  be  ap- 
proximately determined  by  a  well-conducted  exa- 
mination. The  officer  who  conducts  such  an  exami- 
nation should  be  himself  a  teacher. 

Third,  As  to  his  moral  character.  If  the  applicant 
for  a  school  be  a  stranger  to  the  School-Officers,  they 
should  require  him  to  produce  recommendations, 
as  to  moral  character,  from  responsible  parties.  A 
teacher  ought  to  be  a  good  man.  It  is  better  to 
leave  children  untaught  than  to  expose  them   to 


THE    PEOPLE    IN   RESPECT   TO    SCHOOLS.  355 

the  influences  of  teachers  who  either  entertain  b<\d 
principles  or  are  guilty  of  bad  practices. 

Fourth,  As  to  his  professional  requirements.  A 
teacher's  knowledge  of  the  Theory  of  Teaching  can 
be  learned  by  an  examination,  if  it  be  conducted 
by  a  competent  examiner;  but  his  skill  in  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession  must  be  learned  from  the 
testimony  of  those  who  have  w^itnessed  the  opera- 
tions of  his  school-room. 

General  School-Officers  visit  schools.  The  value 
of  school-visitation  by  intelligent  School-Officers  can 
hardly  be  over-estimated.  Such  visitations  are  ne- 
cessary to  secure  the  care-taking  of  grounds,  build- 
ings, furniture,  and  apparatus ;  necessary  to  secure 
the  most  rapid  progress  in  study  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  ;  necessary  to  encourage  competent  teachers 
and  to  detect  incompetent  ones;  in  short,  necessary 
to  secure  the  well-working  of  the  whole  school- 
machinery.  A  railroad  or  a  factory  does  not  need 
the  watchful  care  of  superintendents  more  than 
schools  require  the  frequent  visitations  of  their 
School-Officers. 

m.  The  People  in  Respect  to  Schools.— That 

every  child  is  entitled  to  an  education  is  a  propo- 
sition the  truth  of  which  at  this  time,  in  this  country, 
few  will  deny.  The  main  facts  which  prove  it  are, 
first,  that  without  education  the  end  of  our  being, 
human  'perfection^  could  not  be  attained;  second,  that 
without  it,  since  God  made  us  capable  of  being 
educated.  His  purpose  in  our  creation  would  be 
defeated;  third,  that  without  it  the  noblest  truth 
*r  science,  philosophy,  and  religion,  and  the  highest 

32 


856  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

beauty  in  nature  and  art,  could  not  be  appreciated, 
or  even  conceived ;  fourth,  that  without  it  the  work 
allotted  us  as  individuals,  as  citizens,  or  as  members 
of  society,  could  not  be  performed. 

The  right  of  each  individual  to  an  education  ac- 
knowledged, it  seems  proper  to  speak — 

1.  Of  the  Relations  of  Education  in  Society. 

2.  Of  the  Agencies  by  which  an  Education  can 

BE  obtained. 

1.  The  Relations  of  Education  in  Society. — 
The  people  who  found  and  support  schools  ought 
to  understand  the  social  influences  of  education. 
Without  this  knowledge,  all  provision  for  education 
must  be  made  blindly,  and,  according  to  well-known 
principles  of  human  nature  in  such  cases,  reluc- 
tantly.    I  desire  to  discuss,  briefly, — 

1st.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Labor. 
2d.   The  Relations  of  Education  to  Wealth. 
3d.   The  Relations  of  Education  to  Crime, 
4th.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Happiness. 
6th.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Religion. 
6th.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Government 

The  Relations  of  Ediication  to  Labor, — ^Education 
renders  labor  more  effective.  A  man  who  is  intel- 
ligent and  skilful  can  perform  more  work  of  any 
kind  than  one  who  is  ignorant  and  awkward.  This 
fact  is  made  manifest  in  every  shop  and  on  every 
farm.  It  is  shown,  too,  by  the  invention  of  ma- 
chinery. In  ancient  times,  much  strength  was 
wasted   in   carrying  water   from    distant    springs, 


THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS.     357 

brooks,  or  rivers ;  but  when  wells  were  dug  in  con- 
venient places  and  water  drawn  from  them,  one  step 
was  taken  to  lessen  labor;  when  pumps  were  placed 
in  these  wells  and  the  atmosphere  made  to  do  some 
of  the  lifting,  further  progress  was  made  in  the  same 
direction;  and  when  siphons  and  hydraulic  rams 
came  into  use,  water  could  be  procured  almost 
without  the  expenditure  of  muscular  strength.  A 
sharpened  stick  might  serve  a  savage  to  plant  a  few 
hills  of  corn;  a  spade  would  enable  him  to  plant 
much  more ;  with  a  plow  and  the  skill  to  use  horses 
or  oxen,  one  man  may  do  the  work  of  many ;  and 
when  steam  can  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  animal 
strength,  a  still  greater  breadth  of  land  can  be 
worked  with  a  still  less  amount  of  labor.  If  all  the 
grain  now  raised  in  the  United  States  could  be 
thrashed  out  only  by  the  simple  contrivances  of  the 
primitive  ages  and  ground  by  hand  in  mortars,  the 
whole  people  of  the  country  might  engage  in  the 
work  and  scarcely  accomplish  it.  But  while  the 
simplest  kinds  of  labor,  such  as  the  cutting  down 
of  forests,  excavating  earth,  and  quarrying  stone, 
are  rendered  more  effective  by  education,  the  more 
difficult  kinds  would  be  impossible  without  it.  This 
fact  appears  most  conspicuously  in  the  arts  of  manu- 
facturing and  mechanics.  There  must  be  labor 
directed  by  intelligence  to  erect  bridges,  construct 
railroads,  and  build  steamships;  to  make  watches, 
pianos,  and  printing-presses;  to  manufacture  paper, 
cloth,  or  cannon.  As  a  question  of  economy  in 
money,  a  state  will  act  wisely  in  educating  its  la- 
borers. 

Education  dignifies  the  laborer.     In  all  mon 


358  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

archies,  at  least,  if  not  in  all  republics,  tliere  are 
two  classes  of  society,  the  intelligent,  ruling  class 
and  the  ignorant,  servile  class, — the  Patricians  and 
the  Plebeians;  but  in  all  countries  the  fact  is  ap- 
parent that  the  latter  class  are  held  in  low  estima- 
tion, not  because  they  work,  but  because  they  are 
ignorant.  A  good  education  is  everywhere  a  pass- 
port to  good  society.  It  everywhere  dignifies  the 
laborer  and  makes  freemen  of  slaves.  Cincinnatus 
could  plow  his  lands,  Franklin  could  w^heel  home 
his  paper  through  the  streets  or  set  his  type,  Hugh 
Miller  could  work  in  a  stone-quarry,  and  lose  no- 
thing in  the  esteem  of  any  man  whose  esteem  was 
worth  possessing.  I  once  met,  half  a  mile  under 
ground,  in  a  coal-mine,  a  Scotch  miner.  His  hands 
were  hard  with  labor,  his  face  was  as  black  as  coal 
could  make  it;  and  yet  he  could  talk  to  me  of  strata 
and  formations,  of  fossil  plants  and  animals,  of 
Locke  and  Reid  and  Stewart,  of  Campbell,  Scott, 
and  Burns.  I  realized  then,  in  conversation  with 
that  sooty  miner,  that  learning  may  dignify  the  low- 
liest toil,  and  that  earth  has  nothing  ignoble  but 
sin  and  ignorance.  Man  working  as  a  man  is  re- 
spected ;  but  working  as  a  mere  animal  he  is  despised. 
Whenever  laborers  learn  to  think,  labor  will  be  dig- 
nified. The  common  feeling  seems  to  be  that  man 
was  intended  to  work  more  with  the  head  than 
with  the  hands, — ^that,  having  the  power  to  make 
animals  and  the  inanimate  forces  of  nature  do  his 
heavy  lifting,  pulling,  and  other  work  requiring 
muscular  strength,  he  is  unworthy  of  himself  if  he 
does  not  use  it.  This  feeling  is  the  source  of  the 
difference  in  the  degree  of  respect  with  which  the 


THE  PEOPLE  IN  KESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS.     859 

various  employments  of  men  are  regarded.  Intelli- 
gence commands  a  higher  price  in  the  market  than 
mere  muscle,  or  the  services  of  a  horse  would  be 
worth  more  than  the  services  of  a  man ;  and  the 
price,  not  only  in  money  but  in  respect,  will  always 
be  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  intelligence. 

But  it  is  said  that  education  will  create  a  distaste 
for  work,  and,  consequently,  diminish  the  number  of 
laborers.  I  think  it  is  true,  as  before  intimated,  that 
education  has  a  tendency  to  make  a  man  feel  that 
his  special  work  is  to  think,  to  plan,  and  to  manage. 
It  does  not  make  him  less  industrious,  but  it  dis- 
poses him  to  use  animals,  water,  wind,  steam,  elec- 
tricity, to  help  him  work.  An  educated  man  may 
not  be  very  willing  to  pull  at  a  weight  with  his 
hands ;  but  he  will  contrive  a  capstan  and  do  the 
work  of  many  men.  He  does  not  thrash  grain  with 
a  flail,  but  with  a  thrashing-machine.  He  does  not 
pick  cotton  with  his  fingers,  but  with  a  cotton-gin. 
He  might  grow  weary  spinning  with  a  distaff  or 
weaving  with  a  hand-loom,  but  he  will  build  great 
factories,  and  set  machinery  in  motion  that  will 
make  more  cloth  than  the  whole  world  could  do  if 
all  were  weavers.  Education  does  not  make  people 
dislike  men's  work;  it  only  makes  them  want  to 
work  like  men.  It  may  diminish  the  number  of 
mere  hewers  of  wood  and  drav/ers  of  water,  but  it 
provides  ample  means  for  hewing  all  the  wood  and 
drawing  all  the  water  the  world  needs.  '^If  all 
persons  were  educated,  who  would  do  the  work?*' 
asks  one.  A  harder  question  would  be.  If  there 
were  no  educated  men  to  economize  labor,  where 
could  a  sufficient  number  of  laborers  be  obtained? 

32* 


860  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

God,  when  He  made  man  capable  of  thinking,  did 
not  intend  that  he  should  starve  himself  in  exer- 
cising this  privilege.  All  needed  work  will  be  done, 
and  better  done  than  now,  when  all  men  shall  have 
become  educated.  Most  of  it  will  be  done  by  ma- 
chinery; but  no  one  will  object  then,  more  than  now, 
to  doing  necessary  hand-work  by  hand. 

The  Relations  of  Education  to  Wealth — Education 
increases  the  wealth  of  a  nation  in  several  ways.  It 
makes  labor  more  effective,  as  previously  shown ; 
with  a  less  expenditure  of  time  and  strength,  it  en- 
ables men  to  accomplish  vastly  more  work  than  they 
could  do  without  it,  and  consequently  adds  to  a 
nation's  wealth. 

"Wealth  consists,"  says  Henry  C.  Carey,  "in  the 
power  to  command  the  always  gratuitous  services 
of  nature."  K  this  is  true  (and  it  seems  to  me  to 
be  in  good  part  true),  the  wealth  of  a  nation  must 
be  greatly  increased  by  the  education  of  its  citizens; 
for  it  is  education  that  gives  the  power  to  command 
the  services  of  nature.  A  rude,  uncultivated  people 
work  almost  altogether  with  their  hands  and  a 
few  simple  tools  or  instruments  which  they  acquire 
the  skill  to  make  and  handle ;  later  they  learn  to 
tame  the  ox,  horse,  dog,  or  reindeer,  and  make  use 
of  animal  strength  in  their  labors ;  but  it  is  only  in 
highly  civilized  communities  that  the  wind  is  made 
to  grind  corn  and  propel  vessels,  that  water  is  used 
to  turn  mill-wheels  and  drive  the  machinery  of 
manufactories,  that  steam  is  forced  to  lift  heavy 
weights  and  pull  heavy  loads,  or  that  electricity  is 
sent  on  our  errands  through  the  land.  In  this  sense 
knowledge  is  truly  power,  and  power  is  wealth. 


THE  PEOPLE  IN  KESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS.     361 

The  resources  of  a  country  could  not  be  developed 
without  education.  Vast  forests  of  timber  would 
decay  if  they  could  not  be  converted  into  buildings, 
bridges,  and  ships;  the  mineral  masses  of  coal,  iron- 
ore,  limestone,  granite,  marble,  that  underlie  our 
valleys  and  form  great  beds  beneath  our  mountains, 
were  of  little  value  to  the  wild  Indian  who  placed 
his  wigwam  above  them,  unconscious  of  the  wealth 
under  his  feet;  vegetable  fibres  have  been  found 
and  fashioned  into  fabrics  with  a  skill  and  a  rapidity 
that  add  immensely  to  their  value;  and  even  the 
earth  is  made  to  increase  its  yield  a  hundredfold 
under  the  hand  of  skilful  tillage.  It  is  thus  that 
national  wealth  is  developed  by  education;  and  fur- 
ther illustrations  are  deemed  unnecessary. 

The  Relations  of  Education  to  Crime. — It  is  a  ques- 
tion of  much  interest  to  a  people,  before  making 
costly  provision  for  education,  as  to  the  relation  edu- 
cation bears  to  crime.  Does  it  make  society  more 
virtuous  or  less  so  ? 

We  do  not  find  the  moral  quality  of  an  act  in  its 
intellectual  part.  The  reason  enables  us  to  know 
what  is  right;  but  virtue  does  not  consist  in  knowing 
the  right,  it  consists  in  doing  it  from  a  proper  mo- 
tive. It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  if  intellectual  cul- 
ture promotes  virtue  in  a  people,  it  must  do  so  in- 
directly. But  indirectly  its  influence  must  be  on 
virtue's  side.  Eight-knowing  is  a  necessary  condi- 
tion for  right-doing.  Besides,  crimes  are  frequently 
committed  by  persons  who  do  not  realize  the  wrong 
they  do;  but  this  can  hardly  be  the  case  with  the 
educated.  Crimes  are  frequently  committed  by 
those  who  are  suffering  from  poverty  or  for  want 


362  THE  AUTHORITIES   OP  THE  SCHOOL. 

of  employment;  but  an  educated  man  need  not 
often  suffer  on  these  accounts,  and  this  lessens  his 
temptations  to  wrong-doing.  Crimes  are  frequently 
committed  by  the  ignorant  during  the  hours  when, 
released  from  work,  they  seek  pleasure  in  animal 
indulgences;  but  educated  men  have  tastes  and 
sources  of  amusement  that  sometimes  at  least  keep 
them  from  the  company  of  the  low  and  depraved. 
Crimes  are  frequently  committed  by  those  who  have 
lost  all  self-respect;  the  educated  have  a  better  ap- 
preciation than  the  ignorant  of  the  dignity  of  the 
human  character  and  what  is  due  to  it.  All  these 
circumstances  evidently  tend  to  render  indulgence 
in  vice  and  wickedness  less  common  among  the  edu- 
cated than  among  the  ignorant.  Still,  it  must  not 
be  claimed  that  education  wholly  prevents  crime. 
Some  men  intellectually  very  great  have  been  mor- 
ally very  bad.  Education,  indeed,  has  been  used 
as  an  instrument  of  crime.  Facts  prove  that  a 
mere  intellectual  education  is  not  a  sufficient  safe- 
guard against  the  commission  of  crime :  the  only 
safeguard  is  an  education  broad  enough  to  reach 
the  moral  nature, — the  heart  as  well  as  the  head. 
But  it  is  claimed  that  intellectual  culture  when  im- 
parted by  itself — if  that  is  possible — tends  to  dimi- 
nish crime,  and  that  the  education  imparted  in  our 
common  schools,  comprehending  as  it  does  both  in- 
tellectual and  moral  instruction,  is  greatly  promotive 
of  that  end.  That  this  claim  is  not  unwarranted, 
sufficient  proof  has  already  been  given ;  but  a  few 
facts  in  the  form  of  statistics  will  confirm  its  justice. 
During  seven  years  the  criminal  statistics  of 
Europe  show  that  in  France,  among  the  persons  ac- 


THE   PEOPLE   IN   RESPECT   TO    SCHOOLS.  363 

cased  or  convicted  of  crime,  the  proportion  of  the 
well  educated  to  those  imperfectly  educated  or  not 
educated  at  all  was  227  to  9773 ;  in  Scotland,  188  to 
9812 ;  and  in  England,  91  to  9909. 

Joseph  Bently  some  years  since  arranged  a  chart 
showing  the  moral  condition  of  the  different  coun- 
ties of  England  as  compared  with  their  means  of 
education.  From  an  inspection  of  this  chart.  Bishop 
Potter,  in  the  "School  and  Schoolmaster,'*  draws 
the  following  conclusion: — "If  you  take  the  four 
best-instructed  counties  in  England,  as  exhibited  on 
this  chart,  and  the  four  worst-instructed,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  average  amount  of  crime  is  almost 
exactly  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  the  average  amount 
of  instruction." 

Of  9979  criminals  committed  to  the  jails  and 
houses  of  correction  in  Massachusetts  in  1850,  only 
3175,  or  less  than  one-third,  could  read  and  write ; 
of  9705  committed  in  the  same  State  in  1862,  1965 
could  neither  read  nor  write.  Of  445  convicts  in 
the  Ohio  Penitentiary  in  1847,  248  could  not  read 
and  write  when  they  entered.  In  1843,  of  1778 
convicts  in  the  Eastern  Penitentiary  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 906  could  not  read  and  write ;  of  the  646  who 
were  in  the  same  prison  in  1862,  112  were  entirely 
illiterate  on  admission,  106  could  spell  and  read  a 
little,  421  could  read  and  write,  but  only  7  had  a 
good  English  education. 

The  number  of  commitments  to  the  prisons  of 
E'ew  York  City  in  1850  was  21,299,  of  whom  9449 
could  not  read,  1646  could  read  only,  7284  could 
read  and  write,  and  2737  were  pronounced  well 
edu  :ated.     There  were  tried  in  the  year  1861  in  the 


364  THE  AUTHORITIES   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

principal  cities  of  the  State  of  T^ew  York  36,662 
cases,  and  of  these  21,158  could  not  read  and  write, 
11,745  could  read  and  write,  and  the  education  of 
1156  could  not  be  ascertained.  In  the  California 
State  Prison  in  1863  there  were  589  criminals,  of 
whom  375  could  read,  341  could  read  and  write, 
and  214  could  neither  read  nor  write.  The  chaplain 
of  the  Connecticut  State  Prison  says  that  at  one  time 
out  of  190  prisoners  not  one  was  liberally  educated. 
Now,  when  it  is  remembered  that  but  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  population  of  the  States  and  locali- 
ties referred  to  cannot  at  least  read  and  write,  these 
facts  show  with  overwhelming  force  that  ignorance 
is  one  of  the  most  potent  causes  of  crime. 

The  statistics  above  given  are  quoted  because  they 
exhibit  the  influence  of  education  briefly  and  in  the 
most  convincing  form.  Multitudes  of  the  same 
kind  of  facts  are  readily  accessible ;  and  a  careful 
examination  of  the  inmates  of  every  jail  and  peni- 
tentiary in  the  whole  country  would  exhibit  the 
same  results  as  those  named.  Counter-statements, 
indeed,  have  been  made  by  M.  Guerry  in  France, 
and  by  Sir  Archibald  Alison  in  England ;  but  their 
statements  were  afterwards  found  to  be  based  upon 
a  partial  knowledge  of  the  facts  involved  in  their 
calculations. 

The  Relations  of  Education  to  Happiness, — Happi- 
ness is  defined  by  "Webster  as  *'the  agreeable  sen- 
sations which  spring  from  the  enjoyment  of  good; 
that  state  of  being  in  which  one's  desires  are  grati- 
fied by  the  enjoyment  of  pleasure  without  pain." 
Does  education  tend  to  increase  or  diminish  happi- 
ness as  thus  defined? 


THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS.     865 

That  it  tends  to  increase  it  will  appear  from  tlie 
following  reasons ; — 

Education  multiplies  the  sources  of  enjoyment. 
The  happiness  of  the  ignorant  must  consist  mainly 
in  mere  animal  gratification.  They  can  derive  little 
pleasure  from  the  contemplation  of  the  works  of 
nature.  That  pure  pleasure  which  comes  from  the 
study  of  the  various  sciences  is  wholly  unknown  to 
them.  They  do  not  appreciate  works  of  art,  except 
those  of  the  rudest  character;  and  the  beauty  of 
painting  and  sculpture  and  the  charms  of  poetry 
and  melody  never  can  arouse  to  rapturous  enjoy- 
ment their  dull  senses.  They  do  not  see  the  foot- 
prints of  the  Creator  upon  the  earth,  and  His  handi- 
work in  plants  and  animals  and  the  stars  of  heaven. 
The  mysteries  of  their  own  bodies  they  have  never 
essayed  to  understand,  and  the  whole  world  of  soul 
is  to  them  a  terra  incognita.  The  ignorant  may  be 
contented ;  but  contentment  is  not  always  happiness. 
Brutes  are  contented  with  their  condition;  and 
Shakspeare  says, —   ♦ 

*'  What  is  man, 
If  his  chief  good  and  market  of  his  time 
Be  but  to  sleep  and  feed?  a  beast,  no  more." 

Education  increases  the  power  of  enjoying.  Agree- 
able sensations  may  arise  from  the  proper  exercise 
of  the  organs  of  the  body;  from  the  lawful  gratifi- 
cation of  the  animal  senses,  appetites,  and  passions; 
from  the  use  of  the  various  intellectual  powers;  from 
the  discharge  of  moral  and  religious  duties.  The 
lowest  form  of  happiness  arises  from  the  first 
source  named,  the  next  lowest  from  the  second,  and 
the  highest  from  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  and 


SQ6  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  conscience.  He  is  the  happiest  man  who  derives 
pleasure  from  the  play  of  his  whole  nature,  and  his 
power  of  enjoying  is  much  diminished  who  suffers 
his  higher  mental  faculties  to  remain  unused.  Be- 
sides, the  pleasures  of  the  educated  are  not  only  of 
a  higher  order  than  those  of  the  ignorant,  but  they 
are  more  intense.  A  well-cultured  intellect  is  quick 
to  perceive  truth  and  beauty,  and  well-trained  feel- 
ings are  quick  to  respond  to  such  perceptions ;  while 
the  chief  care  of  the  ignorant  is  "to  sleep  and  feed.** 
Education  removes  many  causes  of  unhappiness. 
All  the  benefits  society  derives  from  those  who 
train  the  young,  relieve  persons  afflicted  with  dis- 
ease, or  heal  the  sin-sick  spirit,  are  attributable  in 
great  measure  to  education.  Much  suffering  has 
resulted  to  humanity  from  various  forms  of  super- 
stition. Eclipses,  comets,  meteors,  have  struck  with 
terror  whole  communities.  Witchcraft,  like  a  fell 
spirit,  has  caused  much  misery.  People  have  been 
frightened  by  ghosts  and  apparitions.  Great  incon- 
venience has  been  occasioned  by  belief  in  charms, 
spells,  and  magical  cures.  Humbugs  of  all  kinds 
have  misled  the  ignorant.  Wicked  delusions  have 
been  practiced  upon  the  superstitious,  and  many 
have  been  robbed  of  money  and  time,  and  some 
have  lost  their  lives,  in  consequence  of  them.  Ig- 
norance seems  to  have  been  the  great  hotbed  from 
which  has  sprung,  like  rank  weeds,  all  that  is  sinful 
and  wicked.  Designing  men  have  made  use  of  the 
superstitious  fears,  fierce  passions,  and  strong  preju- 
dices of  the  ignorant  to  forward  their  evil  designs 
against  social  order,  religion,  and  liberty.  If  it 
were  possible  to  sum  up  the  curses  that  have  bur* 


THE    PEOPLE    IN    RESPECT    TO    SCHOOLS.  867 

dened  mankind  with  vice,  misery,  and  grief,  a  large 
proportion  would  be  found  to  have  a  common  mother, 
— ignorance. 

The  Belations  of  Education  to  Beligion. — The  maxim 
that  ^'Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  devotion,*'  if  not 
uttered  in  irony,  must  have  had  its  origin  when  re- 
ligion was  little  understood.  If  by  devotion  is  meant 
unquestioning  obedience  to  the  authorities  of  a 
church  and  a  blind  compliance  with  prescribed  re- 
ligious forms,  ignorance  is  the  mother  of  devotion ; 
but  if  devotion  means  enlightened  faith,  or  free  and 
full  sacrifice  of  self  to  the  ends  of  piety  well  under- 
stood, the  maxim  is  most  erroneous.  It  is  well  to 
state  here,  in  view  of  the  great  interest  the  people 
have  in  the  matter, — 

First,  the  complaints  science  makes  against  re- 
ligion. Science  complains  that  religion  ignores  the 
higher  faculties  of  the  mind  and  requires  men  to 
believe  when  they  should  reason.  Science  com- 
plains that  religion  fixes  certain  doubtful  creeds  or 
dogmas  by  authority,  and  thus  blocks  up  progress. 
Science  complains  that  religion  is  illiberal  and 
persecutes  men  for  honest  differences  of  opinion. 
Science  complains  that  religion  too  often  degenerates 
into  superstition  and  faith  too  often  has  no  firmer 
basis  than  fiction. 

Second,  the  complaints  religion  makes  against 
science.  Eeligion  complains  that  science  is  proud, 
and  claims  to  reason  of  things  whereof  to  reason 
is  impossible.  Eeligion  complains  that  science 
overlooks  certain  great  truths  which  God  has  re- 
vealed, and  which  must  be  believed  and  practiced 
or  all  progress  leads  to  destruction.     Religion  com- 

33 


868  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

plains  that  science  in  its  toleration  of  error  would 
sacrifice  the  truths  of  God*s  word,  which  must  bo 
preserved  amid  all  the  mutabilities  of  human  afl'airs. 
Religion  complains  that  science  too  often  leads  to 
skepticism  and  reason  too  often  assumes  to  occupy 
the  place  of  God. 

History,  it  is  to  be  feared,  might  show  cause  for 
both  these  classes  of  complaints;  but  to  the  believer 
in  the  perfections  of  God,  no  antagonism  between 
science  and  religion  is  possible.  God  does  not  con- 
tradict Himself.  The  truth  in  His  works  cannot 
invalidate  in  the  least  particular  the  truth  of  His 
word.  Both  coexist  in  the  most  beautiful  harmony. 
Science  has  attacked  religion  because  men  assumed 
to  have  wisdom  which  they  did  not  possess,  and  re- 
ligion has  attacked  science  because  men  have  con- 
structed creeds  which  they  came  to  regard  as  the 
work  of  God  and  not  of  men.  Let  both  "labor 
and  wait,"  and  eventually  all  seeming  diJQferences 
will  meet  their  reconciliation.  Education  has  no 
nobler  end  than  that  of  aiding  in  bringing  about 
this  reconciliation ;  and  happy  the  teacher  who  in 
training  a  scholar  makes  a  Christian ! 

Eeligion,  as  I  understand  it,  is  educational.  God 
gave  men  the  capacity  to  become  religious.  "That 
was  the  true  light  that  lighteth  every  man  that 
cometh  into  the  world."  Certain  conditions  must 
be  fulfilled,  the  strivings  of  the  Spirit  of  God  with 
our  spirits  must  be  heeded,  and  the  converted  soul 
begins  its  growth  in  grace,  at  first  like  a  tender 
plant,  afterwards  like  a  great  tree  that  the  storms 
of  life  cannot  uproot. 

All  true  education  is  religious.    Systems  of  science 


THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS.     869 

are  but  the  thoughts  of  God.  Kepler  uttered  but 
the  sober  truth  when,  enraptured  with  the  discovery 
of  his  planetary  laws,  he  exclaimed,  '^  Great  God,  I 
think  thy  thoughts  after  thee  !'*  All  science,  there- 
fore, leads  to  God.  Its  laws  all  converge  and  unite 
in  Him;  and  the  student  cannot  reach  his  journey^s 
end  until  he  rests  safe  on  the  Saviour's  bosom. 

The  Relations  of  Education  to  Government, — The 
first  form  of  government  was  patriarchal :  the  father 
ruled  his  family :  there  was  no  state.  Ifext  came 
the  monarchial  form:  the  patriarch  became  the 
head  of  several  or  many  families ;  or,  in  times  of 
danger  or  distress,  some  one  stronger  or  wiser  than 
others  was  made  chief,  and  in  the  course  of  years, 
by  conquests  or  affinities,  a  number  of  tribes  united 
under  one  sovereign  whose  rule  was  absolute.  The 
form  that  probably  followed  the  monarchial  was 
the  aristocratic :  some  of  the  principal  men  of  a 
nation,  great  in  ability,  wealth,  or  arms,  demanded  a 
share  in  the  sovereignty  and  obtained  certain  con- 
cessions from  the  monarch,  and  became  a  check, 
more  or  less  strong,  upon  his  power.  The  form  that 
was  the  last  to  be  adopted  is  the  republican,  in  which 
the  people  govern  themselves  by  electing  their  own 
rulers. 

If,  then,  amidst  all  the  mutations  of  nations,  we 
can  see  governments  ripening  into  democracies,  it 
follows  that  forms  of  government  are  the  result  of 
education.  A  republican  is  the  form  toward  which 
all  highly  civilized  countries  gravitate,  and  which 
the  most  highly  civilized  ones  adopt;  but  such  kinds 
of  government  have  always  failed  and  will  always 
fail  where  the  masses  of  the  people  are  ignorant. 


370  THE   AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Where  universal  suffrage  is  enjoyed,  there  must  be 
universal  education. 

A  republic  is  endangered  by  ignorant  rulers.  It 
requires  great  wisdom  in  the  men  who  make  the 
laws  for  a  great  nation  and  adapt  them  to  the  varied 
circumstances  of  the  people;  great  wisdom  in  the 
men  who  expound  these  laws  and  adjust  the  rights 
and  redress  the  wrongs  of  individuals  and  commu- 
nities under  them ;  great  wisdom  in  the  men  who 
support  the  authority  of  the  government  by  a  faith- 
ful execution  of  the  laws  thus  framed  by  legislators 
and  expounded  by  judges. 

A  republic  is  endangered  by  ignorant  voters. 
What  the  Palladium  was  to  ancient  Troy,  what  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  to  the  Jews,  the  ballot-box 
is  to  Americans.  Whenever  it  does  not  express  the 
voice  of  intelligent  freemen,  republican  institutions 
are  in  danger.  Many  other  things  are  necessary  to 
the  well- working  of  the  governmental  machinery  of 
a  republic,  but  a  pure  ballot-box  is  vital.  It  is  the 
nation's  heart.  But  what  shall  we  say  of  the  ballot- 
box  that  expresses  only  the  voice  of  unthinking, 
ignorant  men?  Does  it  need  a  prophet  to  foretell 
the  fate  of  that  republic  whose  voters  are  such  men  ? 
May  God  put  it  into  the  hearts  of  our  American 
people  to  provide  an  education — a  right  education 
— for  all,  that  the  republic  may  not  perish! 

A  republic  is  endangered  by  unprincipled  dema- 
gogues. It  was  by  the  contentionsi  of  parties  and 
party  factions  that  Rome  and  Greece  lost  their  liber- 
ties, and  these  contentions  were  fomented  by 
ambitious  men  who  sought  their  own  interests  at 
the  expense  of  the  state.     The  same  class  of  dema- 


THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS.     371 

gogues,  not  yet  grown  quite  so  bold,  may  be  found 
in  America.  They  pretend  to  be  great  friends  of 
the  people,  flatter  them,  excite  'their  prejudices, 
secure  their  votes,  and,  when  necessary  to  their  pur- 
poses, stir  up  the  spirit  among  them  that  leads  to 
mobs  and  violence.  Success  attends  such  efforts 
only  among  the  ignorant.  The  trade  of  demago- 
guism  does  not  flourish  among  intelligent  men. 
Universal  education  is  the  antidote  for  this  evil, 
and  will  save  our  country  from  the  fate  of  the  great 
republics  of  the  past. 

2.  The  Agencies  by  which  an  Education  can  be 
OBTAINED. — Taking  the  term  "school"  to  signify 
any  place  where  instruction  is  imparted,  the  means 
in  present  u-se  for  the  purposes  of  instruction  may 
be  classified  as  follows : — 

1st.  Family  Schools. 
2d.    Church  Schools. 
3d.    Private  Schools. 
4th.  State  Schools. 
6th.  People's  Schools. 

The  Family  School — The  work  of  education  is 
first  commenced  in  the  family,  and  parents  are  the 
first  teachers.  Some  care  must  be  taken  of  children 
during  infancy,  or  they  would  perish,  and  some  in- 
struction must  be  imparted  to  them  by  parents,  or 
they  will  be  unfit  to  become  members  of  even  the 
rudest  society.  The  wild  savages  of  Africa  and 
America  do  not  wholly  neglect  this  duty ;  and  as 
civilization  advances,  more  care  is  taken  to  instruct 
children  in  the  family,  and  in  some  countries,  as 
in  Judea,   education  was   almost  altogether   of  a 


372     THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS. 

domestic  character.  The  family  indeed  is  a  state 
in  miniature,  the  unit  of  society ;  and  both  reason 
and  revelation  devolve  upon  the  heads  of  a  family 
the  responsibility  of  educating  its  younger  members. 
An  education  received  from  parents  in  the  bosom 
of  a  family  must  have  certain  advantages  over  an 
education  received  from  teachers  in  a  school.  Pa- 
rents can  commence  the  education  of  their  children 
in  their  infancy,  when  they  are  most  susceptible  to 
educational  influences ;  they  can  continue  it  with- 
out interruptions  in  time  or  change  in  system ;  they 
can  adopt  studies  and  regulate  their  family  disci- 
pline with  no  one  to  question  their  authority  or  to 
interfere  with  their  plans ;  they  can  commingle  in 
practical  application,  and  vary  when  desirable,  the 
diflferent  kinds  of  education,  physical,  intellectual, 
sesthetical,  industrial,  moral,  and  religious;  they 
can  unite  both  paternal  and  maternal  influences  in 
their  modes  of  instruction ;  and  they  can  shield 
their  children  from  the  temptations  to  which  they 
would  be  exposed  away  from  home,  even  when 
most  watchfully  cared  for.  These  advantages,  how- 
ever, it  is  evident,  can  only  be  attained  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances.  In  even  the  most 
enlightened  neighborhoods  in  this  country,  it  would 
be  found  upon  trial  that  parents  are  not,  except  in 
few  instances,  capable  of  imparting  a  complete  edu- 
cation to  their  children,  and  that,  when  competent, 
their  business  interests  would  prevent  it.  The  cost  of 
employing  private  teachers  with  the  necessary  qua- 
lifications can  only  be  paid  by  the  wealthy.  These 
causes  have  operated  to  remove  children  from  the 
family  to  receive  their  education,  and  if  the  loss 


THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE    SCHOOL.  373 

has  been  great,  it  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel  tbat  the 
gain  has  also  been  considerable. 

That  parents  cannot  in  the  present  state  of  society 
fully  instruct  their  children  is  a  proposition  which 
few  will  doubt;  but  it  is  very  certain  that  they  might 
accomplish  much  more  in  this  direction  than  they 
now  perform.  They  are  apt  to  shift  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  education  of  their  children  altogether 
from  themselves,  and  throw  it  upon  private  teachers, 
or  upon  Church  or  State.  This  is  most  sadly  wrong. 
Parents  can  have  no  higher  interest  than  the  edu- 
cation of  their  offspring,  and  nothing  but  the  most 
pressing  circumstances  can  excuse  them  from  the 
performance  of  the  duty  of  teaching  these  offspring 
so  far  as  they  may  be  able  to  discharge  it.  ''  Schools 
are  a  necessary  evil,*'  says  a  writer;  and  there  is  much 
truth  in  the  sentiment.  There  can  be  no  question 
that  society  in  all  its  parts,  government  in  all  its 
functions,  must  feel  the  evil  effects  of  defective 
home-training.  Education  is  the  more  potent  the 
earlier  it  is  imparted.  "  Every  new  educator  effects 
less  than  his  predecessor."  Parents  cheat  their 
children  of  their  birthright  when  they  leave  their 
whole  culture  of  head  and  heart  to  others. 

The  Church  School. — The  Church  has  done 
much  for  education  in  all  ages,  though  its  object  at 
times  may  have  been  more  to  increase  its  member- 
ship than  to  benefit  the  people.  Priests  in  different 
countries  of  ancient  times  were  the  chief  educators. 
This  was  the  case  in  Egypt,  Hindostan,  and  Judea; 
and  during  the  long  night  of  the  Middle  Ages,  what 
little  intellectual  light  was  disseminated  came  from 
ihe  cold  cloister  or  the  dark  cell  of  the  monastery. 


874     THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS. 

At  the  present  day  the  Church  has  everywhere  its 
institutions  of  learning,  and  may  justly  vie  with  the 
State  in  the  munificence  of  its  contributions  to  their 
support. 

Knowing  the  power  of  early  influences,  it  is  not 
unnatural  that  Church  authorities  should  contend 
for  the  right  of  education ;  nor  is  it  unnatural  that 
parents  who  are  members  of  particular  Churches 
and  solicitous  for  the  religious  interests  of  their 
children,  should  desire  to  place  them  in  circum- 
stances most  favorable  to  the  promotion  of  those 
interests.  All  the  right  the  Church  can  have  in  the 
matter,  however,  in  my  opinion,  is  acquired  from 
parents.  There  is  nothing  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  itself  that  gives  it  this  right;  but,  if  parents 
or  those  having  the  control  of  children  willingly 
select  the  Church  as  an  agent  to  do  their  work,  no 
valid  objection  can  be  made  to  it.  God  gave  chil- 
dren to  parents,  and  they  are  responsible  to  Him  for 
their  training  and  instruction.  The  Church  may 
advise ;  but  I  can  find  nothing  in  the  Bible  nor  in 
the  nature  of  the  case  to  warrant  its  use  of  force.  I 
mean  that  what  I  have  said  shall  apply  to  countries 
in  which  Church  and  State  are  united,  or  to  those  in 
which  State  authority  is  subordinate  to  Church  au- 
thority; but  it  is  intended  to  be  more  directly  appli- 
cable to  the  state  of  affairs  in  governments  like  ours, 
— the  only  form  of  government  consistent  with  indi- 
vidual liberty. 

The  Private  School. — The  parents  of  several 
farailies  have  the  right  to  educate  their  children  to- 
gether, and  they  may  freely  appoint  teachers  for  that 
purpose.     If  several,  then  many  may  do  so,  and  thus 


THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE    SCHOOL.  875 

Private  Scliools,  larger  or  smaller,  maybe  established. 
Or  a  teacher  may  collect  about  him  as  many  children 
as  choose  to  attend  his  instruction,  and  teach  them, 
and,  as  far  as  I  can  see,  he  commits  no  offence.  If 
the  Church  maybe  selected  as  an  agent  in  the  work 
of  education,  so  may  an  individual,  parents  being 
the  primary  source  of  educational  power  in  both 
cases. 

The  Private  School  differs  from  the  Church  School 
in  this:  the  latter  is  necessarily  denominational,  if 
not  sectarian,  in  its  character,  while  the  former  may 
be  composed  of  children  from  families  belonging 
to  different  religious  denominations,  or  to  none.  In 
such  a  school,  religious  instruction  must  consist  of 
those  broad  principles  which  are  recognized  as  true 
by  the  patrons  of  the  school,  or  be  entirely  left  to 
other  agencies.  It  is  a  curious  fact  in  the  history  of 
educational  progress  in  America,  that  these  Private 
Schools  as  organized  in  villages  and  rural  districts 
suggested  the  necessity  of  our  general  Common 
School  systems,  and  formed  the  basis,  in  principle, 
upon  which  they  are  founded. 

The  State  School. — In  ancient  Sparta  the  State 
virtually  took  their  children  from  parents  and  edu- 
cated them  wholly  with  reference  to  its  own  ends. 
It  prescribed  their  clothing  and  food,  as  well  as  ap- 
pointed their  teachers  and  dictated  their  course  of 
study.  ISTo where  else  has  the  State  arrogated  to 
itself  such  absolute  power  respecting  education ;  for 
the  school  systems  of  modern  Europe  are  State  in- 
stitutions in  a  very  different  sense  from  those  esta- 
blished by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  These  systems,  it 
is  true,  are  under  the  control  of  State  authority,  but 


876     THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS. 

this  authority  is  exercised  with  reference  to  the  in- 
terests of  individuals  and  communities,  as  well  as  for 
that  of  the  government.  The  people  do  not  build 
their  own  school-houses,  provide  their  own  school- 
furniture  or  text-books,  or  appoint  their  own  teachers 
or  pay  them ;  but  the  school-authorities  commissioned 
by  the  governments  under  which  they  act  generally 
show  much  respect  for  their  circumstances  in  life, 
their  peculiarities  of  opinion,  and  their  religious  be- 
lief. Against  the  sternest  despotism  in  Europe,  the 
people  vindicate  their  right  to  some  show  of  liberty 
in  matters  of  education.  In  America  there  are  no 
State  schools,  properly  speaking.  Here  the  State 
merely  makes  regulations  according  to  which  the 
people  establish  and  support  schools. 

The  question  as  to  the  right  of  the  State  in  the 
matter  of  education  will  depend  very  much  upon 
the  theory  of  government  which  may  be  adopted. 
If  rulers  are  God-appointed,  if  the  doctrine  of  the 
"Divine  right  of  kings"  can  be  substantiated,  it 
follows  that  the  will  of  the  sovereign  must  be  the 
law  of  the  land,  and  systems  of  education  may  be 
established  by  the  State  as  well  as  navies  or  armies. 
But  if,  on  tl\e  other  hand,  the  true  theory  of  govern- 
ment is  that  which  vests  all  power  in  the  people, — 
makes  the  people  the  State, — then,  in  my  judgment, 
the  people  can  only  delegate  to  officers  chosen  by 
them  those  powers  which  cannot  be  conveniently 
exercised  by  themselves  as  individuals.  To  do  other- 
wise would  be  incompatible  with  the  spirit  of  demo- 
cratic institutions.  As  a  Democracy,  the  French 
people  had  no  right  to  elect  Louis  Napoleon  Empe- 
ror; and,  as  a  Democracy,  no  American  State  would 


THE   AUTHORITIES    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  377 

have  a  right  to  usurp  power  respecting  education 
which  could  be  efficiently  used  in  the  hands  of  the 
people.  The  best  policy  in  a  Republic  is  for  the 
government  to  encourage  the  people  to  do  their  own 
work  as  individuals  and  as  communities.  Its  func- 
tions are  more  to  adjust  and  regulate.  In  accordance 
with  this  policy,  our  State  governments  have  not 
imitated  the  school  systems  of  the  Monarchies  of 
Europe.  When  the  people  want  school  laws,  they 
are  made  by  representatives  elected  by  their  vote, 
and  they  are  subject  to  repeal  at  their  will.  Good 
care  is  taken  to  place  the  working  power  of  their 
systems  of  education  in  the  hands  of  officers  chosen 
directly  by  them,  whose  interests  are  identical  with 
those  whom  they  serve,  and  whose  official  acts  are 
open  to  their  criticism  and  subject  to  their  revision. 
Even  the  Prussian  system  of  education,  the  best  in 
the  Old  "World,  could  not  be  adopted  in  this  country 
without  sacrificing  the  principle  which  underlies  our 
whole  form  of  government.  "We  might  have  better 
school-houses,  better  teachers,  longer  school-terms, 
larger  appropriations  to  schools,  if  our  State  authori- 
ties provided  them  independent  of  the  popular  will; 
but  such  an  exercise  of  power  would  in  so  many 
other  respects  prove  hurtful  that  it  can  never  be 
tolerated  while  we  remain  faithful  to  the  principles 
of  Eepublicanism. 

The  People's  School. — ^Every  child  that  comes 
into  the  world  has  a  right  to  an  education. 

Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  an  edu- 
cation might  be  received  in  a  family;  but  to  extend 
the  benefits  of  a  good  education  to  all  children  in 


3T8    THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS. 

this  way,  as  society  is  now  constituted,  is  simply 
impossible. 

In  some  respects  the  Church  could  perform  the 
work  of  education  better  than  any  other  agency; 
but  in  this  country  denominational  differences  would 
utterly  defeat  any  attempt  to  organize  a  general 
system  of  education  embracing  the  whole  people 
subject  to  its  control.  If  each  denomination  should 
undertake  the  work  of  educating  the  children  of 
those  who  belong  to  it,  the  task  would  be  found 
very  difficult  and  expensive  among  scattered  fa- 
milies ;  and  immense  numbers  of  children  whose 
parents  belong  to  no  denomination  would  be  left 
uncared  for.  Besides,  in  a  larger  view,  it  is  not 
desirable,  either  for  the  cause  of  Eeligion  or  Ee- 
publicanism,  that  sectarian  prejudices  should  be 
increased ;  and  this  would  inevitably  be  the  case  if 
each  religious  denomination  should  establish  schools 
for  the  exclusive  benefit  of  its  own  membership. 

Unaided  by  other  agencies,  private  means  would 
probably,  in  the  present  condition  of  society  in  this 
country,  supply,  in  good  measure,  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning,  such  as  Colleges,  Academies,  and 
Seminaries,  and  provide  schools  for  young  pupils  in 
towns  and  thickly-settled  rural  districts;  but  no 
system  of  charity  could  be  instituted  that  would 
furnish  the  advantages  of  an  education  to  the  chil- 
dren who  live  in  sparsely-settled  sections  of  coun- 
try, or  to  the  poor  who  are  found  everywhere.  It 
might  be  objected  to  Private  Schools,  also,  that  they 
would  be  so  managed  as  to  subserve  more  the  inte- 
rests of  individuals  or  corporations  than  the  larger 
interests  of  communities  or  states.    The  end  of  edu- 


THE  AUTHOKITIES   OP   THE   SCHOOL.  879 

cation  cannot  be  answered  in  a  nation  without  tlie 
adoption  of  a  broad,  generous  system  of  schools  that 
will  bless  with  its  advantages  all  sections  of  the 
country  and  all  classes  of  men. 

Great  as  is  the  interest  of  the  State  in  the  edu- 
cation of  its  citizens,  insuperable  objections  exist 
against  investing  it  with  plenary  educational  powers, 
in  a  Republic.  As  public  interests  would  be  over- 
looked by  private  institutions  of  learning,  so  private 
rights  would  be  trampled  upon  by  a  system  of  State 
Schools.  Parents  have  too  deep  an  interest  in  the 
welfare,  especially  the  moral  and  religious  welfare, 
of  their  children,  to  allow  the  sacred  trust  of  their 
education,  for  which  God  will  hold  them  responsible, 
to  pass  from  their  hands  into  those  of  State  authori- 
ties, who  are  cold  and  distant,  and  who,  looking  only 
at  the  results  of  their  schemes  upon  masses  of  chil- 
dren, are  apt  to  be  regardless  of  their  ejStect  upon 
individuals.  An  educational  agency  should  com- 
mence with  individuals  and  go  up  to  masses,  for  if  it 
commence  with  masses  it  will  scarcely  get  down  to 
individuals.  That  cannot  be  considered  a  right  sys- 
tem of  education  which  provides  a  great  educational 
mill  into  whose  hopper  all  children  are  thrown,  and, 
when  each  has  been  subjected  to  the  same  grinding 
process,  hands  them  back  again  to  society.  At  the 
best.  State  Schools  can  only  educate  the  head ;  their 
machinery  is  much  too  clumsy  to  reach  the  heart. 

Avoiding  most,  if  not  all,  the  dangers  and  diffi- 
culties of  other  classes  of  schools,  the  People's 
School  recommends  itself  as  an  agency  best  calcu- 
lated to  meet  the  wants  of  a  free  State.  This  kind 
of  school  belongs  exclusively  to  America,  and  is 

34 


380     THE  PEOPLE  IN  RESPECT  TO  SCHOOLS. 

one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  present  age.  Sys- 
tems of  schools  belonging  to  this  class,  by  a  mis- 
nomer sometimes  called  State  Schools,  are  found, 
somewhat  varied  in  their  provisions,  in  nearly  all 
the  States  of  this  Union.  They  furnish,  when  well 
administered,  a  good  education  to  all, — free  both  to 
rich  and  poor;  they  encourage  home  instruction, 
and  resemble  family  schools  in  bringing  together 
the  children  of  neighboring  families ;  they  protect 
the  individual  interests  of  parents  by  placing  the 
power  of  building  school-houses,  supplying  school 
furniture  and  apparatus,  fixing  courses  of  study, 
providing  text-books,  appointing  teachers,  levying 
school-taxes,  and  expending  school-moneys,  in  the 
hands  of  officers  chosen  by  them  from  among  them- 
selves ;  they  educate  together  the  children  of  all 
denominations,  but  admit  any  amount  and  kind  of 
moral  and  religious  instruction  that  their  patrons 
may  agree  to  have  imparted  in  them ;  they  satisfy 
the  just  demands  of  the  State  by  providing  means 
for  the  education  of  all  its  citizens,  and  allow  its 
authorities  just  power  enough  to  regulate  the  work 
by  general  laws  looking  to  the  interests  of  all  con- 
cerned; they  compel  no  child  to  attend  the  schools 
established  by  them,  parents  being  at  liberty  to 
patronize  any  other  kind  of  school  or  to  educate 
their  children  at  home,  but  they  tax  all  persons  and 
all  property,  because  there  is  no  other  just  way  of 
obtaining  the  necessary  funds  to  educate  all  the 
children  in  a  community  or  a  State,  and  a  body  of 
citizens  has  as  much  right  to  tax  itself  for  this 
purpose  as  for  any  other.  Such  are  the  principal 
excellencies  which  recommend  the  People's  Schools, 


THE  AUTHORITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  881 

and  which  should  attract  to  their  support  every 
American  citizen.  They  are  a  most  beautiful  ex- 
pression  of  the  spirit  of  free  institutions ;  and,  when 
well  understood,  none  will  oppose  them  but  those 
who  are  blindly  selfish  or  who  hate  a  democratic 
form  of  government. 

The  People's  Schools  should  be  cherished  and 
supported  by  the  people.  "No  philanthropy  is  better 
than  that  which  carries  the  light  of  knowledge  as 
a  free  gift  to  the  poor,  and  no  patriotism  can  be 
higher  than  that  which  provides  a  good  education 
for  a  whole  nation.  If  the  educational  results  of 
such  schools  bring  disappointment,  the  responsibility 
rests  with  the  people.  They  provide  the  machinery, 
and  they  must  watch  its  working, — must  watch  it 
even  if  farm,  and  desk,  and  shop,  and  office,  be 
neglected ;  for  the  dearest  interest  of  a  nation  is  ike 
education  of  its  children. 

Most  solemnly  let  me  say  that  without  a  full  and 
free  education  of  all  our  youth,  our  democratic 
institutions  will  prove  a  failure.  A  Monarchy  or 
an  Aristocracy  is  possible  anywhere,  but  a  Republic 
can  n^ver  be  long  maintained  among  an  ignorant 
people.  All  the  dangers  which  threaten  our  govern- 
ment centre  in  this  one.  A  sovereign,  a  voter, 
must  know  how  to  rule,  how  to  vote, — or,  otherwise, 
selfish  demagogues  may  govern  by  his  means,  and 
this  is  death  to  the  Republic. 

If  we  need  any  stronger  motive  to  induce  us  to 
lend  our  aid  to  promote  the  cause  of  education,  we 
have  it  in  this :  Gon  demands  it  of  us.  The  talents 
of  our  children  are  ours  to  care  for,  and  we  dare  not 
hide  them  in  a  napkin  and  bury  them  in  the  earth. 


1'  m^ 


